| 00:05 | Alright folks welcome. There's a few up I guess everybody's studying for the |
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| 00:11 | . Mhm. Um So obviously tomorrow . Um Let's see, we can |
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| 00:20 | . So remember you have one of coming up due on sunday and it |
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| 00:24 | just the stuff Like five questions on stuff from Okay, Tuesday. The |
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| 00:31 | 21 22. Let's see. You , smart work do um and so |
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| 00:38 | we'll continue on three So chapter 7 . So now we kind of take |
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| 00:44 | have have have been on that freaking for I guess three weeks now uh |
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| 00:51 | gears to aspects of bacterial genetics. so um I kind of always introduced |
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| 01:03 | section with some kind of what they like basic questions but it's more like |
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| 01:09 | guess trying to mm hmm jog your maybe about the process is a process |
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| 01:17 | gene expression. Which I think you over Yeah. Yeah we went over |
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| 01:21 | intro bio. The how do you do you decipher a the genetic code |
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| 01:30 | be no acid and that kind of . So uh we're not gonna do |
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| 01:34 | here only you know, talk about in kind of passing so to |
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| 01:39 | But um so obviously as soon as know that. So but we will |
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| 01:44 | with some kind of refresher type Okay so it does absolutely helps. |
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| 01:52 | think if you you've kind of forgotten to go back to the year and |
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| 01:56 | I'm talking about is the whole transcription process, right? Not necessarily that |
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| 02:03 | nuts and bolts and super detailed because of wood represents and how it works |
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| 02:11 | very basic terms. So uh we'll through some of that today. For |
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| 02:16 | . Alright. So like I said probably the review committee of you but |
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| 02:21 | don't think it'll hurt. But as talked about material genetics of course, |
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| 02:26 | if we're talking about gene regulation which talk about in Chapter 10. The |
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| 02:31 | part of it reminds me. So flip plastic. So again like before |
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| 02:36 | a bunch of questions. Great questions focused on that day. But you |
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| 02:44 | in between we'll talk about different things gene regulation which is what 10 in |
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| 02:49 | one and part two are all about regulation. Um So it absolutely helps |
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| 02:55 | understand if you have that understanding the gene expression process. Okay, what's |
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| 03:01 | ? So I do not go into details of is he's copied. Here's |
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| 03:11 | you're hurting. Excruciating details of parking . No, I do point out |
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| 03:17 | few things specific to bacteria that may be aware of. Okay. But |
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| 03:23 | really more um there's a whole bacterial are organized. This is how they |
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| 03:29 | to compare to eukaryotic systems. So of on that. And so we |
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| 03:33 | go through just in terms of diet gene regulation but you are not expected |
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| 03:40 | know that I'm just sure you in of contrast. Okay. Compared to |
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| 03:46 | so anyway as we as we go it'll be clear every time. |
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| 03:52 | um, I think I know you wanna hear this yet, but I |
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| 03:57 | next week already The 7th, I it was a Thursday Of next |
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| 04:05 | Uh, that will actually will be Friday for you. So the 8th |
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| 04:10 | I think is when the next wait minute, is that? So two |
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| 04:15 | before is when the constant schedule are ? So That's going to be um |
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| 04:20 | , April one. It looks like one will be the when it costs |
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| 04:26 | schedule opens, which is next Next friday. So just the that's |
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| 04:30 | exam three. Okay, so, , we're gonna actually finish up the |
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| 04:36 | at three rather quickly. Okay, one of the last exam just to |
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| 04:42 | you know. So the last example course occurs during the final period, |
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| 04:46 | it's not it's not a comprehensive Okay. It just covers the last |
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| 04:53 | the course. These are four Okay, so that would come in |
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| 04:56 | the final period. Okay, so , so let's go on to the |
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| 05:04 | thing is I think this is a here. Okay, there's a question |
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| 05:08 | I used to teach. No, before I do that. So |
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| 05:12 | like with chapter 21 22. I didn't. No way. Did |
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| 05:16 | cover the entirety of those chapters. , so again here again in seven |
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| 05:20 | eight the same thing. Right, pay attention to because you're going through |
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| 05:25 | chapters in the book that to specific are only being covered. Okay. |
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| 05:32 | All right, so here's the first . So, this is a question |
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| 05:37 | always had every spring when I talked bio. The part to metro |
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| 05:44 | And It was one. Yeah. , sorry. I mean reveal. |
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| 05:50 | so I was uh this was always an exam uh during the spring semester |
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| 05:56 | the what's now called? 1307, guess. So. Part of my |
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| 06:02 | questions. Okay, Because it really separate. Who knows the process and |
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| 06:06 | doesn't? Okay, so the process transcription and translation is carried out the |
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| 06:12 | tube, you know, to a tube is added. Okay, from |
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| 06:17 | hippo we're gonna take M. And a trh in ribosomes from a |
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| 06:25 | . We're gonna take the DNA. , from a zebra. We're gonna |
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| 06:28 | our people embrace in other necessary rival nucleotides amino acids. Okay. |
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| 06:38 | then we're gonna see, okay, a some new protein. New protein |
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| 06:47 | be synthesized. Okay, uh the is uh from which animal is the |
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| 06:55 | coming from. Okay, so you've multiple choices here. Okay, |
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| 07:03 | let's see you open this up. see what you got. Okay. |
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| 07:22 | , so don't overthink it too Okay, mm hmm. Okay. |
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| 08:08 | mm hmm. 321. Alright. to go back and hit the books |
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| 08:18 | with you. Okay. Alright, um who answered? Um I remind |
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| 08:32 | as well. Who answered. As in dog. So what are |
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| 08:36 | two particles? Yeah I told you pick it up. Good morning |
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| 08:48 | So fish D. N. Uh will be copied. So there'll |
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| 08:53 | some fish protein in there from There could be a hippo protein from |
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| 09:00 | M. I. All right so the old um central dog. |
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| 09:06 | The this this DNA RNA proteins. so we have been important fish everybody |
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| 09:17 | guess that one mostly. But the as well. So the M. |
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| 09:20 | . Right so D. N. . Uh um are gonna make a |
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| 09:24 | transcript of D. N. Of a genius. Okay and then |
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| 09:28 | gets translated into proteins? Okay um hippo and fish. Okay because of |
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| 09:38 | and that. Okay um so I a question. This one's another one |
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| 09:46 | to the same topic for a certain investment found in the region of the |
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| 09:52 | designated X. Comprises a specific sequence D. N. A. |
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| 09:58 | Okay. The sequence can be converted protein only when cells are grown on |
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| 10:04 | . Another kind of sugar As a carbon source. Okay but the following |
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| 10:10 | among a two D. Is false information about this bacteria. Okay. |
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| 10:17 | is it that X. The Phenotype is not revealed when cells were |
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| 10:24 | on glucose as a carbon source. . The conversion of the DNA sequence |
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| 10:30 | a protein requires Robin zones X. the gene. The first stage in |
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| 10:37 | the DNA sequence into a protein requires a copy of the X sequence. |
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| 10:43 | of these are false. Um all our true statements. Oh God. |
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| 10:55 | up again. Sorry. Okay. . If he answered answer again. |
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| 11:02 | hmm. Yeah. Okay. Um have. So the uh it is |
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| 11:39 | of the they're all they're all true . Yeah. So the exponent type |
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| 11:46 | only be revealed if um that we going on galactose. Okay. Um |
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| 11:54 | to we'll talk about the lactose opera that's when he expressed when black folks |
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| 12:00 | present and the glucose is not Okay. As well. We'll see |
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| 12:04 | that works. Um the point there no, no worries. Little organism |
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| 12:14 | violence will express all of its genes one time. Okay, regime regulation |
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| 12:20 | so important really. He can go into some field of biology about |
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| 12:30 | evolutionary biologist or whatever type you're likely you're studying is a phenomenon of gene |
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| 12:41 | . Okay, so um it's obviously important to express produce but it's equally |
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| 12:50 | to control when they're expressing how much expressed. Okay, uh there are |
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| 12:58 | you haven't expressed since you were a plus five days. Okay. Because |
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| 13:04 | don't obviously need those proteins now. , You're through with your development from |
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| 13:08 | to a fetus to adult. so certain of your jeans are kind |
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| 13:14 | in mothballs, so to speak. , I'm not going to be expressed |
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| 13:17 | . But certainly some are expressed all time. Okay. Like genes involved |
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| 13:21 | metabolism, Like also so aspirations, things. So, um, so |
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| 13:27 | is a hugely important aspect of Okay. Um, and certainly |
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| 13:34 | the basics of gene expression, DNA RNA protein. So DNA sequence |
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| 13:38 | gonna express a gene. You need convert that into a an army molecule |
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| 13:44 | can then be translated into proteins using . Okay, of course X is |
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| 13:51 | gene. Right? These these seemingly Stimulation nucleotides 80 gcc. This just |
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| 13:59 | like a random collection. Right? the sequence is anything but right there |
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| 14:04 | specific sequence that dictates a particular media , sequence that produces a polyp. |
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| 14:10 | time for most parts remember jeans. most jeans fit that description. Methodologies |
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| 14:17 | because the end product of the gene also just be an RNA molecule. |
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| 14:21 | . And those are still referred to jeans as well. Okay. Um |
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| 14:26 | certainly the first stage of converting the as mentioned is making RNA copy. |
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| 14:31 | , so um again, I'm sure see is very basic to you but |
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| 14:36 | a more kind of just refresh your about this stuff. Okay, |
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| 14:42 | let's look at a couple of examples . So, gina type of theater |
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| 14:46 | . Our terms obviously we use in context of genetics. And so uh |
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| 14:53 | often hear definition. Field type is things I can see, you know |
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| 14:58 | my own eyes. Right? Uh have a certain amount of sort of |
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| 15:03 | , has a certain amount of fur whatever the characteristic is. Right? |
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| 15:08 | you did what you call that? prototype trade being expressed. Okay. |
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| 15:14 | of course remember that you're not gonna able to see everything with your own |
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| 15:18 | . Right. Although very essential metabolic going on in your body. That's |
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| 15:22 | prototype to necessarily see it as the with your naked eyes necessarily. But |
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| 15:30 | but nonetheless it's part of your Okay. Of course. I'm all |
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| 15:36 | that here's some examples. Right? we're looking at bacterial cells, |
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| 15:39 | We can look under a microscope in case like a microscope and see the |
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| 15:45 | . But then what is it actually ? What's in the genes are being |
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| 15:50 | ? You can see for example, we grow it in certain ways unlike |
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| 15:53 | lactose broth. But it produces a color reactions that tells as well. |
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| 15:57 | has that phenotype or not. so we all of course, no |
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| 16:02 | type are related, write a right? D. N. |
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| 16:07 | Uh is is will produce the so uh by the way to express |
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| 16:14 | the plate, Right. Black Non lactose fermenting blood augur right. |
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| 16:21 | ourselves licensing red blood cells. These all prototypes being shown because they have |
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| 16:26 | genes that expressed in particular protein that them to, excuse me, enables |
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| 16:32 | to use black folks or not, them to life's blood cells or |
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| 16:38 | Okay so possessing certain genes in their to express certain prototypes. Okay so |
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| 16:46 | we look at both these things uh . If you have a general results |
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| 16:51 | the functioning of one or more So that's the lack of that guy |
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| 16:59 | uh red blood cells coming into the zones around the cells showing that phenotype |
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| 17:06 | it's expressing what resting. Mhm. . But expressing what's the functional |
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| 17:16 | It's expressing positive in this example. place DNA to RNA to quality's. |
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| 17:28 | . So if you had typed Germany from the functioning of one of your |
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| 17:33 | the year I call. Alright. parable is right but it's that relates |
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| 17:39 | to pigment proteins. Right? That producing that red coat. Okay. |
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| 17:44 | and so escaped from most few times you see because some genes being expressed |
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| 17:52 | producing some kind of protein that's in whatever it does and that creates a |
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| 17:57 | create invisible. Not always visible but creates a phenotype but there's lactose from |
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| 18:02 | or what had. Okay so um here's an example. Um So you |
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| 18:11 | do very common ideas to do christian Catherine bacteria is a rapid identification. |
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| 18:19 | . To diagnose the pathogen And I find it in the right the right |
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| 18:25 | treatment. So this is a typical the kind of tests um a little |
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| 18:33 | old fashioned tents because nowadays they use um methods to quickly I. |
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| 18:38 | Things. But you can do it way to just get the result a |
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| 18:41 | bit slower uh a day or But anyway, so it was either |
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| 18:46 | lab, right? Do your Okay. You actually launch your chemical |
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| 18:52 | tests, right? Just like these here. Yeah, he's too |
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| 18:57 | All right. And so so uh tubes here. Right? So and |
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| 19:06 | a different form to do those is this. So each compartment is a |
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| 19:11 | biochemical tests. Okay? You see 10, a dozen or so biochemical |
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| 19:17 | . Okay? And so uh not here. There's a wire needle that |
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| 19:23 | through the whole thing. Right? so what you do is the needle |
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| 19:28 | has a cap on it here. uh and you take the cap off |
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| 19:33 | you flame it and you take the and you just, you know, |
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| 19:37 | it in some of your culture on plate, right from a colony. |
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| 19:41 | ? Get some of that material And then you just go flying |
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| 19:45 | flies through all the apartments and inoculate one simultaneously or almost simultaneously. |
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| 19:51 | And so now you cannot create all compartments in one shot. Right? |
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| 19:54 | they put an incubator and you're gonna what happens, right? And so |
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| 19:58 | you'll see is this obviously this has done to this one because we see |
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| 20:04 | color changes, right? So this the jury abroad has turned like this |
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| 20:07 | color which is positive for analysis uh . It's kind of a bluish color |
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| 20:12 | is positive normally it's green if it's positive. Anyway, so you see |
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| 20:17 | color changes and that so it's okay . What is negative for that bubble |
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| 20:22 | ? Right. You total them up then you look it up on the |
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| 20:25 | and tells you here's what you Okay. So anyway, so again |
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| 20:29 | . Right, seeing a phenotype. , just focus on 111 part |
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| 20:33 | The Yuria test. Okay, so a positive result. Okay, what |
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| 20:37 | that actually mean? Okay. In of genetics? Okay, well of |
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| 20:42 | relates it means that that bacteria has enzyme. Okay. And under the |
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| 20:48 | conditions in that little chamber. It carried out this reaction. |
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| 20:54 | Maria in the medium hydrolyzed by the WCO to pneumonia, pneumonia basic creates |
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| 21:01 | color change. Okay, that that back to a gene, right? |
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| 21:06 | it has your infuriating and which was under the conditions growing in that |
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| 21:13 | Okay uh so we have the process . Right producing M. R. |
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| 21:17 | . A copy of D. A. In the called messenger |
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| 21:22 | Right then we translate that using ribosomes then producing a protein. Okay. |
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| 21:30 | that protein of course is the the act on the substrate and carry out |
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| 21:37 | reaction. Okay so this is one thousands of genes bacterial in hands. |
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| 21:43 | . And um it would only be under certain conditions. Right. Um |
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| 21:49 | uh so it expands the range of . Right? Some are what the |
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| 21:54 | instituted. We'll talk about that later . The genes are always expressed because |
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| 21:57 | typically critical function. Genes that are needed. Right. Others depends on |
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| 22:03 | conditions around the cell. Right? is in particular nuclear present. |
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| 22:08 | Let's use it and then we'll express gene and use it. If it's |
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| 22:11 | present, then don't because remember I on this a lot this semester but |
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| 22:18 | can't see any diagrams this one or in the book is how much energy |
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| 22:24 | used in these various processes. And so there's all kinds of energy |
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| 22:30 | because, you know, energy from synthesizing the right to them if transcribing |
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| 22:39 | synthesizing a protein, it all takes lots of them. Okay, so |
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| 22:45 | the more reason to only express what need when you need it because otherwise |
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| 22:49 | a waste because remember although you do things experiments in labs, pure culture |
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| 22:56 | , they're out there in nature competing each other. But thousands of other |
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| 23:01 | . Right. So you've got to super efficient. Right? Or else |
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| 23:06 | won't survive. So um so just to real quick acceptance. |
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| 23:14 | Because it's important to know this because the context of regulation. Right. |
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| 23:21 | this is the path to make a . How are you going to regulate |
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| 23:25 | and if it's made. Okay well gonna have affected at these different levels |
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| 23:31 | of transcription, right? Level of . Even at the level when the |
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| 23:36 | is already made or even here level DNA before anything, all of those |
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| 23:43 | up in total points. And we're to see examples of that as we |
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| 23:47 | through this material. Okay. So you don't have to feel for this |
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| 23:53 | that's gonna be harder to kind of . This is how we're controlling |
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| 23:57 | Okay, so um come back to review. Right? Because we've talked |
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| 24:03 | since anti sense in the context of viruses. Right, viruses in |
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| 24:09 | And so they're staying close minded Anderson has nothing to do with the |
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| 24:15 | that their viruses that has to do the fact that they have nuclear |
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| 24:18 | Right? It's all about gasses. relationship between the sense antisense strands and |
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| 24:27 | um so here is a example of and the Children to sense versus senses |
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| 24:36 | code that contains the information and that be converted into a Alright, the |
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| 24:45 | strength with complementary strengths. Okay so we look at um transcription and |
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| 24:53 | Okay um here what we're doing is making a copy of the anti sets |
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| 25:00 | is also called the template. Mhm. So we're going to copy |
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| 25:07 | template because of the rules of based . Right? If we copy the |
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| 25:13 | , the antisense strand then we will basically making a copy of the sense |
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| 25:19 | . And so that's what that copy . And we get this strand the |
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| 25:28 | . R. N. A. ? Which is gonna be this is |
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| 25:31 | plus since plus strand antisense minus this going to be a plus. |
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| 25:40 | And we're gonna take a closer look that sequence for a second. But |
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| 25:44 | thing is um so a couple of wrong with bacteria. Alright, the |
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| 25:49 | here is not separated. Right? policy information. Right? The current |
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| 25:56 | together the same time. There's no like in new carriers. Right? |
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| 26:02 | The the elements here. So there's be a rambles on biden said we'll |
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| 26:08 | about this later. But part of transcript is contained elements that facilitate the |
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| 26:15 | . All right. So part of secret is gonna have to arrive because |
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| 26:18 | of the things you see in a we're here a gene, right? |
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| 26:26 | have promoter. Alright, that's what polymerase binds to. Right? So |
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| 26:34 | only buying two riders on binding RNA polymerase binds to promote both these |
|
| 26:40 | . Combined sites in the promoter orient molecules in front of what of the |
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| 26:47 | information. Right? So promoter orients commemorated in front of the gene. |
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| 26:52 | every gene, basic structure of a is promoted. Then we call the |
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| 26:57 | gene part that's transcribed. Okay, , for the right result, it |
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| 27:02 | to be oriented as well. I don't wanna just plopping down right |
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| 27:08 | here somewhere. Okay, on the will not there but over like down |
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| 27:14 | . Okay, you want to orient at the beginning so it so it |
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| 27:17 | the whole molecule. Okay, that's oriented is the arrival of the binding |
|
| 27:22 | so analogous to promote. So you the monitors in front of what needs |
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| 27:28 | be either transcribed or translated and then work properly. Okay. Um the |
|
| 27:34 | thing is is obviously for simplicity say . I completely show You know, |
|
| 27:44 | , 1 protein magnetic, one pipe chain. Um This thousands of these |
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| 27:52 | can be made. Okay, they're talked to me for a single |
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| 27:55 | you can make hundreds of transcripts from single gene. Okay, so quantity |
|
| 28:01 | these things is not something you can easily either, but I know that |
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| 28:05 | that can't happen well like you can levels of expression. Okay, a |
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| 28:11 | or live. Okay, and there's factors that play into that as |
|
| 28:16 | See um Okay, so let's look the sequences Here compared to compared to |
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| 28:27 | two. Okay, so it kind just a relationship between the three and |
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| 28:31 | it's it's the same for any whatever is coming from the relationship is the |
|
| 28:38 | . Okay, so here's our N. A. Transcendent and he |
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| 28:42 | , okay, again this complementary base . Right. G. To |
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| 28:45 | A. T. T. Okay we make a copy of our template |
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| 28:50 | or sense strange. Alright so just the right punctuation marks here. Alright |
|
| 28:56 | is R plus R minus. We call this. The template are not |
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| 29:04 | . Alright, coding. And so making a copy of the antisense |
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| 29:11 | Alright. We create the M. . And if we just compare the |
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| 29:16 | right, compare that to that, see that they're identical, right? |
|
| 29:21 | where there's a timing, right? our enemies don't have five means that |
|
| 29:25 | right. So you can see here . C. A G C. |
|
| 29:29 | . A. T. G. U. G. And then you |
|
| 29:33 | just compare these all along the way there again identical, right? Except |
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| 29:42 | there's a five minutes you're so but than that they're identical, right? |
|
| 29:46 | that's what we're trying to do We want to make a copy of |
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| 29:50 | essential information of that sense of So we're gonna copy the temperature in |
|
| 29:55 | to get that. Okay, so old plus minus minus plus thing. |
|
| 30:00 | so um the it's one of the . The um okay we'll come back |
|
| 30:12 | me. All right, so um that's what it was the the. |
|
| 30:25 | so which see here? Okay um is the transient entity here, the |
|
| 30:36 | that kind of comes and goes not so permanent at least now the life |
|
| 30:43 | the cell. This one is actually comes and goes this one is pretty |
|
| 30:47 | permanent until obviously cell dies. The part one here is what are in |
|
| 30:55 | period of the transient ones because they and go okay they are in |
|
| 31:02 | A long lifetime bacteria bacterial especially may many minutes and they're gone okay. |
|
| 31:11 | . N. A. Is a thing. Right? And so I |
|
| 31:15 | just the analogy of D. A. Is the the book on |
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| 31:19 | and library that you can't take Right? Um So if you want |
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| 31:25 | from that book you've got to go Xerox machine and make copies of |
|
| 31:29 | Okay um And those copies now are RNA. M. RNA is there |
|
| 31:36 | working copies? Right. So once have your information ready this is take |
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| 31:42 | paper roll it up and throw in garbage when you're done with it. |
|
| 31:44 | right. If you need more you always go back get the book and |
|
| 31:47 | more copies. Right? That's really it's cool. So RNA are working |
|
| 31:53 | of of DNA segments of genes. And so because the silk can always |
|
| 32:00 | more of them as needed. Because is hanging around forever. Okay |
|
| 32:08 | they're made once they're made then they always be translated. And of course |
|
| 32:13 | don't want that going on because an that was transcribed at one point and |
|
| 32:19 | was needed and it was so because was needed right? You know 55 |
|
| 32:24 | later it may not be but if hanging around it will be copied. |
|
| 32:27 | that's a waste. Right? So inherently have don't have aren't as stable |
|
| 32:35 | D. N. A. So um so here's what we're gonna |
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| 32:42 | about. Like any questions I guess is more listen to me for you |
|
| 32:49 | . Um but if you have questions me know. All right. So |
|
| 32:53 | of these terms includes all of the . You may not be familiar with |
|
| 33:00 | couple of things but that's your best . Okay. Yeah, cheers. |
|
| 33:47 | hmm. Mhm. Okay. So yes it's going to be genome |
|
| 34:18 | is the most all encompassing. So if you go from one genome |
|
| 34:28 | will go to a regular melon. gene. Yeah. You have a |
|
| 34:37 | type. Okay. And so we'll about regulations and operations next. Um |
|
| 34:46 | scope. Okay. So speaking of then leads us into here um making |
|
| 34:54 | Gm. So prepared genomes uh order magnitude smaller than ours than eukaryotic |
|
| 35:02 | Um 10 to 6 when you order of the 5th. 10 of the |
|
| 35:06 | . And their size in terms of pairs hundreds of thousands to maybe five |
|
| 35:13 | on the Larger and Echo has like times 10 to the 64 million base |
|
| 35:21 | . Um smaller ones are about 0.5 right? And so um so in |
|
| 35:28 | of genome transcriptome and proteome really all all that refers to is again the |
|
| 35:33 | old D. N. A. ? The R. N. |
|
| 35:37 | two protein. And so the genome course represents the totality of all the |
|
| 35:46 | which can be for bacteria and Well of course we its chromosome but |
|
| 35:51 | any extraneous uh plasmas small circular pieces DNA that may have that too was |
|
| 35:59 | of the genome in present. The is we're just gonna be one of |
|
| 36:03 | R. And a memoir and essays are in the cell at any given |
|
| 36:06 | . Right. And then of course represents the proteins being expressed. So |
|
| 36:12 | and so we already asked this question which is permanent. Which is transient |
|
| 36:17 | of course will be the proteome transcript transit. Right transcription will come and |
|
| 36:23 | and of course as they come and , proteins come and go, |
|
| 36:26 | the protein is gonna have depending on type. They can generally have longer |
|
| 36:32 | have longer lifetimes than the RNA is made from. Okay. But they |
|
| 36:38 | have a have a fun time. . Certainly the genome chromosome is going |
|
| 36:44 | be the permanent part of that. , now is mentioned kind of the |
|
| 36:50 | as we just mentioned of bacterial chromosomes remember that they can also possess past |
|
| 36:59 | generally carrie On average maybe around 10 . 5, 10 is probably the |
|
| 37:07 | common we're talking about uh you know single metabolic pathway typically or it can |
|
| 37:15 | fewer than that. It's like an resistance gene or something like that. |
|
| 37:20 | you know it's not gonna represent a because they're they're small. And so |
|
| 37:24 | these are the things that they can transferred between sides as we'll see next |
|
| 37:29 | . Okay And so uh so the . So here's what we're going to |
|
| 37:34 | the picture of. Just for contrast . Do you carry on system? |
|
| 37:41 | so precarious. So this term here kind of an older term. Okay |
|
| 37:46 | tron and it really just means It's an old term for jean. |
|
| 37:50 | so polly you can have a mono tronic message. A party sis tronic |
|
| 37:57 | . So we learned that the organization bacterial genes they can have multiple genes |
|
| 38:04 | to a single promoter. Okay that's that's not an organization you see. |
|
| 38:09 | you carry it. Okay so what means is a structure like that with |
|
| 38:17 | genes in a single transcript produces a sis tronic RNA. Okay many genes |
|
| 38:25 | one transcript. Okay so upfront and again those are precarious genetics terms we |
|
| 38:33 | have regular structure. And you carry . Okay so let's look at you |
|
| 38:37 | out first again, just for You're not going to be tested on |
|
| 38:42 | in trump et cetera. But it just to contrast with these with bacterial |
|
| 38:48 | . So um okay so here's the . N. A. Here would |
|
| 38:51 | a representative jean. Okay and you out june has uh and so the |
|
| 39:00 | that's the business part of the system say is right here. Okay. |
|
| 39:05 | gonna be this is what's transcribed. . And of course very common. |
|
| 39:12 | you're pro critical you carry out the is part of energy orients the preliminary |
|
| 39:19 | . What needs to be transcribed? . So Exxon's an entrance. So |
|
| 39:26 | genes are organized with these intervening sequences . N. And that's what stands |
|
| 39:34 | . Exxon already expressed sequences. And what happens in the eukaryotic transcript is |
|
| 39:40 | of processing. Okay. And of lots of control. So you have |
|
| 39:47 | by parts of the predatory parts that far away. Right? They call |
|
| 39:54 | means far away. Right? Proximal close. Okay so you have both |
|
| 39:59 | . Okay. Uh you also have other elements of probably a sequence. |
|
| 40:07 | what's called part of the processing is camp is put on it. |
|
| 40:15 | Captain tail. Okay so you have remember that. And then also of |
|
| 40:20 | the processing of taking in Exxon's and introns. Right? So the coating |
|
| 40:28 | you have what's called the pre Are typically called. This is the |
|
| 40:34 | you have that's transcribed but before it be translated. Right? So this |
|
| 40:39 | this is not translatable. Okay guys gonna move the N. Tron is |
|
| 40:46 | put the cap and tail. And it already has a tail that |
|
| 40:49 | put the cap on. Okay. so a structure like this here is |
|
| 40:56 | . And my that's something that can transcribed translated. Excuse me. |
|
| 41:02 | And so um and so yeah, remember this is happening in the nucleus |
|
| 41:10 | these have to exit the nucleus and outside and be translated. So the |
|
| 41:16 | facilitate the exit. Right? any M RNA is lacking. Capital |
|
| 41:23 | just basically degraded very rapidly. Not at all. Okay. And unlike |
|
| 41:32 | uh RNA you carry that money is your state compared to the. |
|
| 41:37 | So these can last up to hours even days or weeks in some |
|
| 41:41 | Okay. But they don't have to enhances. Okay, so so lots |
|
| 41:50 | RNA processing occurs with eukaryotic cheats. . Um and so you know even |
|
| 41:58 | it can people calls exon 12 and . You can combine these. So |
|
| 42:05 | of the part of the splicing process called can produce transcripts that contain |
|
| 42:13 | Just exon one and two or two three or X on one and 33 |
|
| 42:18 | combinations. Okay. I mean they'll they'll be related in function. |
|
| 42:23 | We'll have different projects but they'll be , you know, in terms of |
|
| 42:26 | common pathway but that's how it In your curiosity. Yeah. Under |
|
| 42:33 | none of this occurring activity. so different organization. Uh different |
|
| 42:41 | No introns. Exons under that Okay. Um certainly the control the |
|
| 42:49 | . Obviously energy so that that will similar. Um So now when we |
|
| 42:56 | look at the imperial system, okay have um again is common to energy |
|
| 43:07 | . Okay, no matter what Um But then they will group genes |
|
| 43:14 | the same pathway. So it's It was to make uh to make |
|
| 43:22 | right? All the enzymes involved in that would be on a single |
|
| 43:28 | Okay. And so we called structural . Are those genius. Okay the |
|
| 43:38 | elements. So here's our memories that bind transcribe and then the transcript can |
|
| 43:46 | this strong It will be one one segment. Right? Not three not |
|
| 43:55 | A. A. And B. C. It's all together on one |
|
| 44:00 | . Um And then of course translated the subsequent proteins enzymes typically and then |
|
| 44:07 | are very common and can be part the pathway. Yeah we see |
|
| 44:11 | Okay now uh control. So again is important. So bacteria have anarchy |
|
| 44:19 | hamburger called offering sequences. These are the promoter and the start was dropped |
|
| 44:25 | . Okay so again remember these structures promoted an operator. A regulatory |
|
| 44:35 | They represent D. N. Sequences but they were apart they're not |
|
| 44:42 | and translated into anything. Okay there be just control. Okay. Other |
|
| 44:47 | buying them, protein planning the facilitated but they themselves are not transcribing translating |
|
| 44:53 | . Okay. Their regulatory genes so Alright so um A. And so |
|
| 45:04 | do we call the opera in there everything that's on here. The opera |
|
| 45:07 | is just won't you be this part to hear is the opera promoter |
|
| 45:17 | Okay, now there will be associated genes nearby and far away maybe. |
|
| 45:25 | we don't call them part of the . Okay. They're separate. |
|
| 45:29 | And so regulatory proteins that control typically typical for it to interact with the |
|
| 45:42 | . Okay, so regular parade protein operator can work hand in hand to |
|
| 45:47 | expression. Okay, so one of things I remember is that um these |
|
| 45:55 | binding of of where there are people raise to a promoter arrived home to |
|
| 46:02 | some binding sites a to a operative . Right. These things are not |
|
| 46:13 | . Permanent bindings. Okay. They and go right off on off on |
|
| 46:19 | different things influence whether it stays on lot or not on a lot. |
|
| 46:25 | , so just remember that. if you see something bound, |
|
| 46:30 | Like this, that that's a not permanent thing. It can very easily |
|
| 46:36 | knocked off and we'll see how that . And that's that's the control. |
|
| 46:40 | ? When it's bound where they're not . Okay. And one of the |
|
| 46:43 | that cause it inbound or outbound, the essence of the control. |
|
| 46:48 | Different things will bring that about. . Everything from. What is it |
|
| 46:54 | . Alright, whatever. So, example to this. Okay, so |
|
| 47:00 | , you know, you can visualize if something is sitting on the |
|
| 47:03 | that's a physical block. Right thenardier . Can't get around. So of |
|
| 47:09 | it's gonna stop expression. Okay, again, it's a continuum. All |
|
| 47:15 | . You can be completely shut off you can be on or somewhere in |
|
| 47:22 | modeling all depending on the mechanism of and what's going on? What's the |
|
| 47:29 | experiencing at this time? So it's a fluid kind of a thing. |
|
| 47:36 | . Um and it should be that , right? Because these guys are |
|
| 47:42 | . They're gonna they're just, you , pretty quick on the fly to |
|
| 47:47 | conditions and be able to control these , especially if you can control |
|
| 47:52 | Imagine, you know, if this if this were a picture pathway, |
|
| 47:57 | ? And you have to hold each of these individually. That's not very |
|
| 48:02 | . Right? But they were all , you know, a different promoter |
|
| 48:07 | then you have to control those Right? So they're all part of |
|
| 48:11 | common pathway. It makes sense to in control amount once. Right? |
|
| 48:14 | you can turn them all on once turn off all of us. |
|
| 48:17 | So that's much more efficient. You can turn off pathways X and |
|
| 48:22 | . You need to turn on A B. If you need to Oh |
|
| 48:25 | . So much more efficient. Um, but there are some |
|
| 48:32 | Okay, as this this is why was just sitting here, There are |
|
| 48:37 | bacterial genes that are just the one one gene type. Okay, but |
|
| 48:43 | are in the opera? Okay kind structure. Okay now um Okay so |
|
| 48:54 | so if we just go back to question. So honestly uh nucleotides that |
|
| 49:02 | up DNA. Okay so that will up a gene. Okay Multiple genes |
|
| 49:08 | make up a Iran. Okay then operations of course contain multiple genes. |
|
| 49:18 | operations can be coordinate li controlled as in a regular. So that's where |
|
| 49:25 | is controlling multiple operations. Okay so example that is what actually what we're |
|
| 49:33 | about in terms of metabolism previously is nitrogen. And so I did before |
|
| 49:39 | talk about that. So just quickly talk about super factors at the end |
|
| 49:42 | this but it helps to bring it now. So bacteria he is guided |
|
| 49:53 | the promoter through the sigma factor. the sigma factor is a transient part |
|
| 50:00 | the primaries. So it can bind unbind. Right? So when it |
|
| 50:04 | diploma raise it guides it to the . And then once once the preliminaries |
|
| 50:10 | to synthesize the sigma factor jumps off combined another preliminaries. Okay that's how |
|
| 50:17 | has worked to help guide the preliminaries the promoter that sits in front of |
|
| 50:22 | team or the opera. So um so the super factor this can be |
|
| 50:28 | control point because they control where they where proliferations go and affect transcription then |
|
| 50:36 | you can manipulate sigma factors that's a to control expression. And so that's |
|
| 50:41 | you control these regulations. Right? this could be a sigma factor here |
|
| 50:46 | controlling these different operas. Okay. so what's an example of this? |
|
| 50:53 | we talked about last time matching triangle . And gentrification. Right. So |
|
| 51:01 | in itself is actually a regular called regular that controls different aspects of assimilation |
|
| 51:14 | . Right? So think of all roles of nitrogen in the south Right |
|
| 51:18 | Make Amino Acids Right to Make Nuclear two. Um uh I hear |
|
| 51:27 | Um And so how how can this kind of control where things are going |
|
| 51:32 | it's needed? Right so uh these what we call global nitrogen control as |
|
| 51:40 | allocate resources appropriately. So if it's um bringing that related to settle uh |
|
| 51:51 | how's it going? So how can control that? How do we control |
|
| 51:54 | those here? This pathway? That ? So because the importance of nitrogen |
|
| 51:59 | to the cell and the multiple pathways . Well you can control the operations |
|
| 52:05 | are specific to each part of this . Right? That's of course more |
|
| 52:10 | that way. Okay and so uh also there's an example of irregular we'll |
|
| 52:16 | next week which is um involved in transformation, transformation of the uptake of |
|
| 52:25 | . N. A. The There's actually a whole process to carry |
|
| 52:28 | out and it's actually lost multiple options it's all under control of the |
|
| 52:33 | Okay for transformation. So um so you have kind of these big processes |
|
| 52:40 | involves lots of different operations. That sense to control these things all together |
|
| 52:44 | once. So that um uh really efficiency and for to not waste |
|
| 52:53 | Right? And so yeah, allocated example but they didn't win. |
|
| 52:58 | So that's what it's all about. this contractual control is so important. |
|
| 53:02 | ? Without it. Things will just willy nilly and you know with all |
|
| 53:07 | of energy. So you have to that in and do this through various |
|
| 53:12 | of control china. Um Any questions that? Yeah. So we have |
|
| 53:19 | talking about for three cells that have . N. A. What about |
|
| 53:23 | ones that have RNA? They have they have two motors uh virus. |
|
| 53:31 | . Because that would be the only doesn't have a genome. And |
|
| 53:38 | they they they would have to have motors because there are some That's actually |
|
| 53:47 | good question. And I actually never about that until you mentioned so. |
|
| 53:53 | yes, because I never I never never seen readings here about but |
|
| 53:58 | there has to be because how else you gonna oriented transcription? So our |
|
| 54:04 | . So yeah, there certainly are GM will have rise of iron |
|
| 54:09 | So that's that's that's the the orientation you need for an army general and |
|
| 54:16 | gonna serve as because is not going be um it's it's it's about um |
|
| 54:26 | that you certainly don't have right in . So you don't have those moments |
|
| 54:32 | I don't think it's more of a of what motivates on D. |
|
| 54:35 | A. But certainly it's things like are buying this type of orientation that's |
|
| 54:39 | sure. Okay. But there may something um similar to rajan's promoted. |
|
| 54:47 | . Um that's what it's all about , anything departure sequence. So there |
|
| 54:51 | to be that you can't not be . You know, you can begin |
|
| 54:57 | and translating in the middle of sequence you don't like that is a functional |
|
| 55:03 | actually some kind of the talent. , that's what buying section promoters. |
|
| 55:13 | really is about orienting the molecule where needs to be in front of the |
|
| 55:18 | information. Um So Klansman's um these have mentioned already smaller auction units |
|
| 55:32 | these of course are naturally occurring in but of course in the last 40 |
|
| 55:41 | plus we've use them of course in lab for uh the competent D. |
|
| 55:47 | . A. Work, right? cloning these kinds of things at the |
|
| 55:52 | minute service. We call vectors for out all kinds of molecular biology experiments |
|
| 56:00 | ? Because they're small, they replicate quickly and they have and they can |
|
| 56:07 | that of course because they have their origin of replication. Remember that term |
|
| 56:12 | ? We talked about that when we about the chromosome replication. So it's |
|
| 56:16 | sequence is what enables it to be . Okay. And so because of |
|
| 56:21 | , we can take this plasma and can put it in a cell and |
|
| 56:24 | will copy it for us. in terms of the common DNA work |
|
| 56:27 | cloning, that's why they're generally convenient use. And of course we have |
|
| 56:34 | plasmids and rebuild them for our own . There's all different ways to use |
|
| 56:40 | from if you want to sequence a of DNA, you can insert into |
|
| 56:44 | plasma and make lots of copies of . You can uh you can uh |
|
| 56:51 | at the protein translation of different You stick a sequence, you stick |
|
| 56:55 | there. There's all kinds of utilities plasmas, which is why they've been |
|
| 57:00 | for years and they're still used. . But, you know, the |
|
| 57:03 | being is that these are naturally Okay. And so, you |
|
| 57:08 | for in our mark perspective, especially week, we'll see how these things |
|
| 57:14 | be passed from the sell of the . Alright, so their small size |
|
| 57:19 | that to happen. Okay. And uh but, you know, many |
|
| 57:24 | will have different types of sequences in . This you see uh antibiotic resistance |
|
| 57:33 | tetracycline, that's those are the genes enable it to be resistant to these |
|
| 57:39 | antibiotics. Okay. But there can be other genes, like a metabolic |
|
| 57:43 | maybe in here as well. So just depends on the plasma type. |
|
| 57:48 | so because a plasma has its own sequence, it basically makes it independent |
|
| 57:55 | the problem. You have to kind do its own thing, so to |
|
| 57:59 | . Okay. Hence the word Okay, so copy number. And |
|
| 58:05 | other thing we should mention is there be multiple origins of replication as |
|
| 58:14 | It may have 123 or more. . And replication from different forwards can |
|
| 58:21 | different types of functions. In other we'll see that it took a particular |
|
| 58:28 | reputation is used when it's going to transferred to another self. Right. |
|
| 58:32 | a congregation. We'll talk about that week. Um Others may enable it |
|
| 58:37 | be copied at a higher rate. the high low copy number. What |
|
| 58:42 | means is is some may have one two copies of the patterns we |
|
| 58:47 | Low copy number. other cells may 40-50%. Okay, relates to the |
|
| 58:54 | they have and how often it gets . Okay, so and both have |
|
| 59:02 | disadvantages. Okay. Remember maintaining amount plasmids can I mean a lot of |
|
| 59:08 | usage by themselves to maintain those right? Or to copy them all |
|
| 59:12 | etcetera. So low copy number can a benefit in that. Okay, |
|
| 59:17 | don't have to make use so much to maintain this thing. Okay. |
|
| 59:21 | but some of these can also integrate the chromosome so they can exist outside |
|
| 59:28 | chromosome in the cell but then they integrate into the chromosome as well. |
|
| 59:34 | as I mentioned some of these can transferred. And so different names. |
|
| 59:38 | usually it's kind of relate to what of what kind of functions. So |
|
| 59:44 | factors are those that carry genes for resistance? Okay. F factors are |
|
| 59:51 | that are transferable. So there's a collection of jeans you need to have |
|
| 59:55 | the plasma to be mobilized. We it and transferred to other cells. |
|
| 60:02 | , now uh kind of this little is if the plasma is an |
|
| 60:08 | Factor that means you might that might you to believe that's all it's for |
|
| 60:17 | . But an R. Factor break down. You have to factor in |
|
| 60:22 | . The it factor is only the of but the plans were that contains |
|
| 60:27 | genes to make a transfer. So our traffic. So it's an |
|
| 60:30 | Factor handing F. Factory that makes then transferable. Right? So the |
|
| 60:36 | factor part, that's the important That's what makes it transferrable. So |
|
| 60:42 | have enough factory that makes it So that's so remember that. |
|
| 60:49 | so is a designation saying, oh time has the gene to make a |
|
| 60:56 | , right? And it may have addition to that these other things, |
|
| 61:01 | cannonball pathway a in the back Okay, so if the X factor |
|
| 61:06 | that mixes transferrable um okay, so this is their likes to the orange |
|
| 61:18 | or glorification type. So um if going to carry out conjugation, |
|
| 61:24 | transfer it's gonna copy the plans and copy is going to another cell. |
|
| 61:32 | look at the process of congregation next . But for now in order what |
|
| 61:37 | that is copying from a story that what's called rolling circle replication. So |
|
| 61:46 | kind of replication you're familiar with and we've seen before is this by direct |
|
| 61:51 | how your chromosome two copies. so you have a story, |
|
| 61:55 | You open strands apart when you have replication forks, right? That whole |
|
| 61:59 | and you create two copies, Are pro social court Libya wrapping? |
|
| 62:05 | same principle is bidirectional replication growing circle little different. Okay, so what |
|
| 62:14 | is a nic. A nic is a a breakage of the colon bond |
|
| 62:21 | the strand together. Just 11 bond called the nick. Right? So |
|
| 62:26 | the three prime hydroxyl, if you your replication um what a three prime |
|
| 62:35 | group is exposed on D. A. That's where DNA polymerase can |
|
| 62:41 | on and begin extending from that. , and so what what it |
|
| 62:49 | it of course, hangs on the prime hydroxyl group but then begins to |
|
| 62:54 | the template strand in red. Gonna copy that to make the red |
|
| 63:00 | , right? The inner blue one the template and the red one is |
|
| 63:04 | new DNA being made from that right? So that's what happens here |
|
| 63:08 | then as that's going around, right this outer blue strand here is being |
|
| 63:17 | and not that that's what you see little loop for me, that's what's |
|
| 63:21 | on. As a new strand is around popular template, that other one's |
|
| 63:26 | off. Okay. And so As continues, you see how what you |
|
| 63:32 | to envision that there's two cells here's one and here's the other. |
|
| 63:40 | , so so too, so one their congregation, this is what's happening |
|
| 63:47 | self together. And let's circle applications on, and one copy is being |
|
| 63:51 | into the other set. Okay, now you have a double stranded DNA |
|
| 63:59 | and now this one will be Okay. And um it generates the |
|
| 64:08 | trained in this case. Okay. complete the to make a double stranded |
|
| 64:12 | . Alright, this is what you see in congregation with that next |
|
| 64:16 | Okay, this rolling circle replication. um Alright, inheritance of plasma. |
|
| 64:26 | this is kind of where the low copy number can make a |
|
| 64:30 | Okay, so uh since since um replication, it's independent of the |
|
| 64:40 | uh Plasmids aren't replication of plasmids aren't to when their soul is going to |
|
| 64:47 | , but obviously the chromosome is tied that process, right? So it's |
|
| 64:51 | Divide. Obviously. Step one is the problem. Okay, the classmates |
|
| 64:56 | obligated to do that. Okay, if you have a high copy number |
|
| 65:02 | plasma, like this guy over Right? Well, just by, |
|
| 65:07 | know, my cell division because there's many copies of itself divides whether in |
|
| 65:13 | plane on that plane, you it's gonna daughter cells won't hear it |
|
| 65:19 | least one plant. Just by chance there's so many in the self. |
|
| 65:22 | ? So having a high copy you do that kind of that |
|
| 65:26 | Okay. That but if you you know, there's so many intimate |
|
| 65:31 | dollar stores are. It's when you on, right? Compared to if |
|
| 65:34 | just one copy. All right, only one daughter self assured of getting |
|
| 65:42 | pleasant on both. Okay, but the of course the other overriding |
|
| 65:48 | here is selective pressure. Right? is on that plasmid that the cell |
|
| 65:55 | to keep it in the first Right? Just be selective pressure on |
|
| 66:00 | to keep it Okay, um, hmm. With, like I |
|
| 66:07 | you can just, you cannot guarantee both cells and we're gonna inherit that |
|
| 66:12 | to sell device. So there is called a quasi I call it a |
|
| 66:17 | my tonic spinner. But it's not by any means, but it kind |
|
| 66:20 | looks somewhat like it. Okay. what these par P A R proteins |
|
| 66:25 | all about. PRS for partitioning partitioning being happened to selves. And so |
|
| 66:33 | facilitates the process so that both when make a copy that both end up |
|
| 66:38 | each end up in the dark Okay. And I don't expect you |
|
| 66:43 | the details of this, I'm just show you here real quick in this |
|
| 66:48 | . Okay, so you see a and here are two copies. |
|
| 66:54 | here and here. And these part . Um Different types. They'll they'll |
|
| 67:00 | some some binding to the plasma. will then buy into it and then |
|
| 67:04 | to prelim arise and extend as you here the strand getting longer and then |
|
| 67:11 | bind each other, right? They'll each other and then hook up and |
|
| 67:17 | go extend, going to opposite sides the cell, can I? And |
|
| 67:23 | now that was sure when the cell each sort of copy. Okay, |
|
| 67:31 | a way to kind of like I , I got quantity kind of function |
|
| 67:38 | it ensures that each cell gets a of that plastic. Okay, |
|
| 67:42 | only a thing for for low copy types. But back to this. |
|
| 67:47 | , so, selective pressure. so basically the example of this of |
|
| 67:52 | is uh here's Nicolai with 10 resistance temper cycling. And it's on this |
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| 68:00 | here. Right, So this is the resistance gene test basically crumbles on |
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| 68:07 | and you have one that's sensitive So it doesn't it doesn't have that |
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| 68:12 | carrying the resistance gene. So of , if you grew uh this |
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| 68:17 | this guy will grow on on this even would contain tetracycline because it has |
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| 68:25 | jeep has a selective pressure on. on this plate that's certainly selective pressure |
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| 68:30 | keep that class. Okay. Otherwise won't survive. Okay so whether it's |
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| 68:36 | high topic then it doesn't matter. got that selective pressure directly on it |
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| 68:40 | it's gonna hold on last, Because that's how it's going to |
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| 68:44 | Okay now certainly this this one obviously roll on it. Okay? Now |
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| 68:53 | uh if you put this guy the one on this medium, okay without |
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| 69:03 | obviously you regret. Okay But then a matter of so once once you |
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| 69:09 | it on here and it grows okay you then yeah passenger, you transfer |
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| 69:16 | ? Subculture subculture it e subculture it you do that because it won't live |
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| 69:29 | . Once you put on the plate not gonna live there won't be forever |
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| 69:33 | . Month or so. Typically transferred fresh medium to keep it viable. |
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| 69:38 | so keep doing that. And doing play with detective cycling. It is |
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| 69:43 | chance that something won't get rid of fewer. More and more cells will |
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| 69:48 | passwords. You keep transferring it if don't maintain that selective pressure. |
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| 69:54 | Because remember again it's a it's an energy thing right? Keeping in the |
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| 70:00 | with me and you have to maintain have to use energy to maintain the |
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| 70:06 | so that the pressure on them is a way to help them hold on |
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| 70:09 | it, right? But if you maintain that pressure over time they can |
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| 70:15 | after several generations Washington, just wasting and it's never encountering the to keep |
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| 70:25 | . So it will eventually be So, um so these plans and |
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| 70:32 | certainly have their certain conditions, they absolutely be helpful. Right? So |
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| 70:37 | cells are growing the tetracycline and it's gonna want to have that, |
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| 70:41 | that may not necessarily be a situation always arises in nature all the |
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| 70:48 | Right? So, it's kind of and that's why the pressures of |
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| 70:53 | they'll eventually losing that for so many of division. Is that any questions |
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| 70:59 | that? Okay, So, like said, the ball was after |
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| 71:05 | These things, these things are super in everything they do, right? |
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| 71:09 | they're not, they're gonna not Okay. So, um so let's |
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| 71:19 | yeah, let's um this is probably good spot. So I think we |
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| 71:25 | have a couple of things to finish this section. We can do that |
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| 71:28 | monday, folks. Thanks. And , good weekend. Good luck on |
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| 71:35 | exam. You mean that let's just this |
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