| 00:00 | Yeah. Mhm. Oh, now much. Thank you. It was |
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| 00:41 | . High school. Very lucky. , I stay at home. |
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| 00:57 | Yeah, one. Not sure. . OK. Folks. Uh let's |
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| 01:18 | started. So you OK. Uh right. So today we're gonna go |
|
| 01:31 | um cryptogenetic. So maybe a bit a review for some um maybe refresher |
|
| 01:40 | some uh I don't think it's gonna new stuff necessarily but some of the |
|
| 01:44 | may be new. Um But more that in a second. So uh |
|
| 01:49 | 12. So it, I was what to because I had like in |
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| 01:54 | , I had nine and 10 and else. And so I decided, |
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| 01:58 | , what am I gonna do Um I don't think you need to |
|
| 02:04 | Checker uh I think 11 is like are what the pros are. It's |
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| 02:11 | a list of names and, and and taxonomy and I don't know how |
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| 02:16 | you really get out of that. . So I thought, well, |
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| 02:19 | , that's, but you know, said, well, let's, this |
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| 02:21 | what I've done before. The fungi , put its own helmet. These |
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| 02:25 | like worms. OK. So in of, you know, we're, |
|
| 02:29 | , we're really getting into, especially we finish eight. pretty much after |
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| 02:36 | is like all, pretty much clinically care related. So we're talking about |
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| 02:41 | heavily on diseases and so on and forth. But I figure, |
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| 02:45 | uh this will introduce you, at to some, I'm not focusing on |
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| 02:50 | is really uh pathogens, disease causing that are in this group. |
|
| 02:56 | Because we don't cover any of these the end. So at the |
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| 02:59 | we do, we look at diseases things of different types of infectious diseases |
|
| 03:03 | uh we don't really put it in . So these are kind of give |
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| 03:06 | some exposure to like, you you'll see like fungal infections, for |
|
| 03:10 | , in the, in a, a hospital for sure. Uh you |
|
| 03:15 | , when you see a protozoal type , you know, this is |
|
| 03:19 | think, think malaria, right? don't really have cases of malaria in |
|
| 03:22 | , but um you do in other of the world for sure. Um |
|
| 03:27 | protozoal diseases you may get like um there have been recently cases of uh |
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| 03:33 | shell shellfish poisoning due to these um uh kinds of allergy that can grow |
|
| 03:39 | the gulf we talked about before, ? So they'll grow in large numbers |
|
| 03:45 | that produce these toxins. And so uh you'll, you'll get some of |
|
| 03:49 | occasionally. Um But uh anyway, I thought Ok. Well, let's |
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| 03:53 | this. We'll get some, some to. So these are all you |
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| 03:57 | courses. So basically eu Caro uh that can cause disease. So we'll |
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| 04:02 | at some of that and then, , and then will there be more |
|
| 04:06 | ? I don't know. We'll We'll see. Um, anyway, |
|
| 04:10 | , so, you know, you're , ok, we just took exam |
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| 04:13 | . Ok. We have to sign for exam two. Yeah. |
|
| 04:16 | yeah, unfortunately you do. So, uh so that's this |
|
| 04:21 | the next schedule opens. So, I know some of you are brand |
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| 04:25 | university, right? And so, you, some of you had issues |
|
| 04:29 | of accessing or where to go. . Right. So, um, |
|
| 04:34 | those of you that are, are familiar with CASA from previous experience, |
|
| 04:40 | you're not going to the CASA site to the old one, not to |
|
| 04:43 | old one. So some of you of migrated to the old Casa |
|
| 04:45 | don't go there, right? Because not gonna find what you need, |
|
| 04:48 | ? So, go to that CCS , right? And I'll um I'll |
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| 04:53 | another email on a Thursday and I'll put the link in there |
|
| 04:56 | So that's, that's where you wanna to, to that CASA version. |
|
| 05:01 | . So, um, so exam , you know, again, it's |
|
| 05:05 | cover what, 27 78 12, a tiny bit of something else. |
|
| 05:09 | don't know. We'll see. Uh then after, after this unit's over |
|
| 05:14 | , you know, we're pretty much be um, you know, uh |
|
| 05:18 | , um um uh and the immune and et cetera so heavily with, |
|
| 05:24 | know, mostly the medic medical microbiology you will. Ok. Uh through |
|
| 05:29 | end of the semester. So, which is I not rapidly approaching but |
|
| 05:36 | , it's coming up quick, it's uh shocking. So anyway, um |
|
| 05:41 | else we got? So we got quiz this week, um, mastery |
|
| 05:45 | due next Monday. Uh What I think that's it. So. |
|
| 05:51 | , so the exam, so the when I go, oh my |
|
| 05:53 | what's, what's gonna happen here? it gonna be, you know, |
|
| 05:57 | not, is it not gonna be ? And so I was not quite |
|
| 06:00 | , but actually I was um pleased the result from the standpoint of, |
|
| 06:05 | know, having an average that wasn't way down the toilet somewhere. |
|
| 06:09 | But it was, that's why I to shoot for 70 plus or minus |
|
| 06:13 | couple points. Ok. And um, so now what we gotta |
|
| 06:18 | , what I gotta do is because , it's in a way, you |
|
| 06:21 | , with these big classes because my , um, the, the major |
|
| 06:25 | had the same average almost and, , and to a degree it's like |
|
| 06:30 | like herding cats to be right, to get a large body of people |
|
| 06:34 | in the, right in the, this in this direction, right? |
|
| 06:36 | what I'm trying to do. So I'm gonna get some more. |
|
| 06:39 | need, get these butts over here on this side. OK? I |
|
| 06:43 | get, you gotta heard these people on that side. So, |
|
| 06:47 | uh, so number one, if didn't, if you fell within these |
|
| 06:52 | over here, don't panic. Don't despair. OK? Um, |
|
| 06:59 | concerned. OK? But don't, , remember you got that one third |
|
| 07:05 | there. The cookers and homework that , right? So maximize that |
|
| 07:10 | right? Uh We got one So that's 17%. Right. So |
|
| 07:15 | now the this other one third is holding more weight. OK? |
|
| 07:20 | you do wanna bring this exam average because pretty soon, right? It's |
|
| 07:24 | take over, right? Because remember two thirds exam one third of the |
|
| 07:28 | stuff. OK. So, um , um, many of you have |
|
| 07:34 | set up times to come and look the exam? That's perfect. |
|
| 07:38 | Um, so, you know, think I said this before. Whatever |
|
| 07:43 | did for exam one don't identically don't repeat it right. If you didn't |
|
| 07:48 | that well on it, right? if you do the exact same thing |
|
| 07:52 | you do more of the same both of those are gonna lead to |
|
| 07:56 | much the same score again. So do change it up, |
|
| 07:59 | Because what's the worst thing that can ? You change it up, you |
|
| 08:03 | make the same gradient, right? , but the odds are you're gonna |
|
| 08:06 | better. OK. So do change up. You're not sure what to |
|
| 08:11 | . Let me know. OK, can go over that. So |
|
| 08:14 | there's time to recover here. So um so I have a degree |
|
| 08:20 | amnesia, right? Because you're not see this again, right? Because |
|
| 08:25 | the last exam is not comprehensive which four individual exams. So, |
|
| 08:30 | so, um, but, you , now, now the focus is |
|
| 08:33 | too and do the best I Ok, so you need help. |
|
| 08:39 | am here. Ok. So, , and you can't come to the |
|
| 08:44 | hours, just email, there's other and times. Ok. So not |
|
| 08:47 | problem. So, um, um, but roughly like three quarters |
|
| 08:56 | , you know, uh, made a B or C on |
|
| 08:59 | So, uh, anyway, you , I'm glad for that, but |
|
| 09:02 | want, I'd rather have just three and a B and AC bar and |
|
| 09:06 | done with it. Ok? But , we'll try, try. |
|
| 09:11 | so today, um, we're gonna . So I think we have, |
|
| 09:16 | gonna start with a few questions. this is kind of a, these |
|
| 09:20 | are gonna be kind of ok. I remember this stuff? Do I |
|
| 09:23 | of remember it? Uh, let see what I know about it. |
|
| 09:26 | . And this is, uh, of those areas, this is one |
|
| 09:30 | those areas that you gotta know this , right? If you're a |
|
| 09:35 | a health major, these are one the things things you should, when |
|
| 09:38 | leave here, you should OK? know what this is. I know |
|
| 09:41 | the the basics of gene expression and information flows in living things. I |
|
| 09:47 | this, right? It's like you know the the very basics of |
|
| 09:52 | the very basics of evolution, you kind of things you know that uh |
|
| 09:58 | know, when, when you leave that you know them, right? |
|
| 10:02 | , and so like, like with this material, I'm not gonna |
|
| 10:07 | into super details on, OK. every step of protein synthesis. |
|
| 10:13 | OK. I'm not, I'm not going into structure of nucleic gasses or |
|
| 10:17 | like that. So the chapter in book does do that. OK. |
|
| 10:22 | , but I'm not doing that So again, it's more what's the |
|
| 10:26 | process going on? OK. Um is, what are the basics of |
|
| 10:32 | couple of stages of the process? ? So you'll see as we go |
|
| 10:35 | this. So um so again, get too in the weeds with |
|
| 10:40 | OK? Because you, you as the book presents it, you |
|
| 10:44 | get in the weeds very quickly. . So uh we're not covering oh |
|
| 10:50 | . Um uh we're not, we're DNA application only in the aspect of |
|
| 10:57 | replication. We're not getting into details it. Um Gene regulation, we're |
|
| 11:01 | even covering that. OK. Um expression, we're gonna go through |
|
| 11:06 | but really just the very basics of . OK. Uh Mutation, we |
|
| 11:10 | talk about that. OK? And talk about transfer genetic material. |
|
| 11:15 | um so context for this, So let's um let's do a couple |
|
| 11:20 | questions first kind of to see what , where we're at in our heads |
|
| 11:24 | this. OK. Then we'll kind explain around it. This is a |
|
| 11:27 | I have used, I think since started here 20 years ago. And |
|
| 11:32 | , and it's one that very quickly me if you really understand the |
|
| 11:38 | OK. So let me pause Sorry, I'm sorry. Who |
|
| 11:54 | Oh Yeah. What, what, the question? Yeah. Uh |
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| 12:01 | Just do what you can and we'll with it later. OK. All |
|
| 12:05 | . Um Process. OK. So the question. So the process of |
|
| 12:10 | and translation, right? So that's of those things you got to remember |
|
| 12:12 | transcription and what's translation, right? It carried out the test tube and |
|
| 12:16 | , and it, it sounds like , but this, this has been |
|
| 12:20 | , you know, it's not, not nothing uh uh impossible, it's |
|
| 12:23 | done lots of time. So, . So in a test tube, |
|
| 12:25 | adding from a hippo, right? , mrnatrnas and ribosomes. OK? |
|
| 12:33 | a fish DNA from a zebra RN lyme and other necessary enzymes, ribonucleotide |
|
| 12:41 | amino acids, right? So you parts to do the transcription translation. |
|
| 12:45 | we're supplying those parts but just from sources, different animals. OK. |
|
| 12:51 | so um you, you uh let thing proceed. OK? And you |
|
| 13:00 | get something OK? You get a protein is made. So some assume |
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| 13:07 | new protein is synthesized pro proteins of animal or animals will be expressed? |
|
| 13:17 | . So which animal? And so are your choices? OK. The |
|
| 13:22 | combinations or just one of them or have you? OK. Oh Let |
|
| 13:26 | ask you this. Oh It's, open. OK. So you may |
|
| 13:33 | this a slam dunk. Maybe But anyway, we'll go through |
|
| 13:42 | Uh Let's see. They got this then two more questions and we'll talk |
|
| 13:48 | little bit. OK. Yeah. coming down from 10 oh All |
|
| 14:39 | Here we go. Let's see. Nedne. OK. So uh the |
|
| 14:50 | theme here, of course, is OK? So flow of information, |
|
| 14:55 | ? Universal process. The same way works in us is the same way |
|
| 14:59 | works in a cockroach, the same it works in a fungus uh in |
|
| 15:04 | E coli, right? The same process. So, um and so |
|
| 15:10 | is we have um our DNA genome our chromosomes, for example, um |
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| 15:18 | parts of the DNA that we call , right are copied into an RN |
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| 15:24 | form. OK? I'm not gonna into all the details yet, but |
|
| 15:29 | wait a little bit So uh then basically make RN a copies of |
|
| 15:34 | So think of um I don't of course, where the professor had |
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| 15:39 | book on reserve the library, So there for everybody to access, |
|
| 15:46 | . But you couldn't take it with , right? So the way to |
|
| 15:49 | working copies of what you wanted in of reading, what have you, |
|
| 15:53 | is xerox, right? Make xerox . And um then uh that's what |
|
| 15:58 | took home, right? You could go back to that book and you |
|
| 16:01 | more copies because you probably read it then crumbled up and threw it |
|
| 16:05 | right? So the copies you're making the Xerox machine, that's your RN |
|
| 16:09 | , right? So you can always more of that stuff, right? |
|
| 16:16 | it's, it's transient, it's around a while. It goes away. |
|
| 16:21 | ? Uh DNA is the permanent OK. And uh what are you |
|
| 16:26 | with the RN A? Well, making protein, right? That's, |
|
| 16:29 | what you're doing. That's what living function because of the proteins they |
|
| 16:33 | right? So, OK, so we're looking for here can be two |
|
| 16:39 | , right? It certainly can be , right? So, uh every |
|
| 16:44 | everybody picked, um, well, everybody picked fish. OK. |
|
| 16:49 | you know that DNA here, of , will be synthesized in the protein |
|
| 16:53 | in the protein. OK? So is gonna be one of the |
|
| 16:58 | If, if you think that's the one, but there's actually another |
|
| 17:01 | right? So remember we go from to MRN A, right? And |
|
| 17:06 | , so because we're supplying MRN A the hippo, then that too will |
|
| 17:12 | expressed. OK? So it's actually and fish, OK? Are |
|
| 17:18 | OK? So, um so it's about really just this right here, |
|
| 17:23 | of information. OK? So let's at the next question, right? |
|
| 17:26 | , we'll summarize all this here in couple more slides. OK. This |
|
| 17:32 | this is asking about. So a of terms here when, when we're |
|
| 17:35 | into a gene expression, right? phenotype genotype is one of those. |
|
| 17:41 | . So um which of the following is are true regarding genotype and |
|
| 17:49 | right? So you get ABC and there. So take a look. |
|
| 18:18 | So I read thinking this over in of context to you know, |
|
| 18:24 | infectious diseases, right? So ability make a back seat is based on |
|
| 18:30 | the genes involved that cause disease, virus, right? And then be |
|
| 18:36 | to um express that right? Um uh be factors expressing those right? |
|
| 18:45 | comes from this process. OK. . Yeah. Yeah. Hey, |
|
| 19:19 | from 20. Mhm. OK. Stranglers. Here we go. |
|
| 19:51 | OK. Uh Let's do the next . Then we're gonna come back and |
|
| 19:55 | these points. OK. Um The is, is that one? |
|
| 20:05 | OK. Yeah. So we'll, come back, we'll let's look at |
|
| 20:13 | one. This, this is a way to frame a question. |
|
| 20:19 | So we've got uh bacterium has been that a region of the chromosome designated |
|
| 20:28 | , right X region comprises a specific coding sequence of nucleotides. Right. |
|
| 20:37 | The sequence can be converted into protein when the cells are grown on |
|
| 20:44 | kind of sugar, kind of Um So we only see the protein |
|
| 20:48 | X when it's grown on galactose. . Um Which of the following statements |
|
| 20:55 | true regarding this information. OK. there are choices. OK. Um |
|
| 22:08 | . Cut out from eight, I 32. OK. All right. |
|
| 22:21 | let's do a little bit of OK. Let's go back to this |
|
| 22:26 | . OK. So um genotype So if you relate it to |
|
| 22:34 | let's just go back to this, thing right here. Flow of |
|
| 22:38 | OK. Genotype is right here. is a genotype. We express |
|
| 22:44 | So when you, when you convert into a protein, we call that |
|
| 22:49 | expression. OK? Expressing the DNA a protein form. OK. So |
|
| 22:55 | um so DNA is the genotype proteins the type, of course, |
|
| 23:05 | It's the, it's the working Genotype maybe is one way to think |
|
| 23:10 | it. OK. So um so , they're not the same thing |
|
| 23:16 | like they're two different things. You can't use it interchangeably. Um |
|
| 23:22 | C is written uh backwards. The represents the expression of the genotype. |
|
| 23:30 | , it's, it's, it's a and, and C is written |
|
| 23:33 | So phenotype represents the the expression of genotype. You express the genotype into |
|
| 23:39 | protein of some kind of function. . Um D is false because um |
|
| 23:47 | of your own body, right? can see if you have like brown |
|
| 23:51 | and blue eyes would have you brown , whatever, right? You can |
|
| 23:54 | those traits are visible obviously, but have a bunch of chemical chemical reactions |
|
| 24:00 | on inside you, right? That necessarily show themselves as the naked |
|
| 24:05 | right? So, uh so B not just visible traits. OK. |
|
| 24:11 | , but certainly it's, it's the is con is the constant, |
|
| 24:15 | It's the DNA, it's your right? They're, they're there, |
|
| 24:19 | ? And they can be um converted to, into these protein proteins uh |
|
| 24:27 | they contain a sequence to, to those OK? And we can produce |
|
| 24:31 | at, you know, when, needed. Uh and so, uh |
|
| 24:35 | represents the, the um the let's call it of expression, |
|
| 24:41 | The genes are always there, are expressed, are they not, |
|
| 24:45 | That is um dictated by the needs the organism. Uh You have genes |
|
| 24:53 | haven't expressed since you were a right? And why don't you need |
|
| 24:57 | express those now? Well, you're a zygote anymore, right? So |
|
| 25:00 | went from zygote to, to right? There have been a lot |
|
| 25:05 | changes that occurred obviously, right? so you had to have certain genes |
|
| 25:10 | during that time, specific to that , right? But you're already fully |
|
| 25:14 | . You don't need those, you need that expression anymore. So you |
|
| 25:17 | need it, right? So those basically have been in storage now for |
|
| 25:21 | long time. Um, if you to clone yourself, ok, you |
|
| 25:27 | need to revive those genes again, ? Um, but, you |
|
| 25:31 | I don't think anybody is gonna do any time soon. But um the |
|
| 25:35 | is that that's the realm of gene , right? Of controlling what's on |
|
| 25:40 | what's off, et cetera. Um OK. Any questions about |
|
| 25:48 | OK. I, OK. So I know this may sound super basic |
|
| 25:54 | I mean, it probably doesn't hurt have a refresher on this. |
|
| 25:58 | So this question. All right. X is certainly a G. |
|
| 26:06 | It's a specific protein coding sequence of . That's a definition of A |
|
| 26:13 | OK. Uh One thing that just in the back of your head is |
|
| 26:18 | not all, although most are most are protein coding, there are some |
|
| 26:25 | aren't, the end product is simply RN A molecule. OK? Things |
|
| 26:32 | ribosomes, right? Ribosome or RN is a component of a ribosome, |
|
| 26:38 | ? Transfer RN A is helps you DNA to, to, to protein |
|
| 26:44 | A to protein. So you do products that are just RN A molecules |
|
| 26:49 | have functions. Uh But as I , most of your protein, most |
|
| 26:55 | your genes are protein coating, but are some that aren't OK. Um |
|
| 27:01 | . So this thing here, this X can only be converted to protein |
|
| 27:06 | cells are grown on galactose. That's in the realm of regulation. |
|
| 27:11 | And so it only expresses the galactose galactose is present, which, which |
|
| 27:17 | sense. I remember um that having about metabolism, anabolism before that um |
|
| 27:27 | gene expression is a heavily anabolic You're, you're building stuff, |
|
| 27:33 | You are first making a transcript, you're making a protein that's building |
|
| 27:37 | right? It takes a lot of . OK? So you only wanna |
|
| 27:43 | those genes being expressed that, that need because otherwise you're just wasting |
|
| 27:49 | OK? And so um so control a big part of this and we |
|
| 27:53 | really, we don't go into But uh it, it is a |
|
| 27:55 | part of, of, of any thing is controlling these various genes. |
|
| 28:01 | , um uh so the reno type not present all times. In this |
|
| 28:06 | , it's only present when galactose is , right? Otherwise it's not, |
|
| 28:10 | don't know, it's, it's, there. OK? Uh The X |
|
| 28:15 | is DNA, it's a gene is a protein, OK? Uh It's |
|
| 28:19 | into one. OK? But the sequence itself is DNA. OK? |
|
| 28:24 | this example, uh the conversion of DNA sequence into a protein starts with |
|
| 28:31 | to the X. No rnap binds DNA makes a transcript that then is |
|
| 28:39 | ribosomes bind to. OK. And , we'll go through, through the |
|
| 28:42 | of it. OK. So the one that's true here is D the |
|
| 28:47 | sequence is a gene and genes are genotype. OK. Um Any questions |
|
| 28:55 | that? Yeah. Right. uh let's go here. All |
|
| 29:03 | So here are some examples of right. So we can look at |
|
| 29:06 | um you can look at a E under a microscope, right? Electron |
|
| 29:10 | here. You can see the structures . Um Now, here's the nucleoid |
|
| 29:17 | the chromosome, right? And so can express this is one of 3000 |
|
| 29:23 | and E coli has is lactose lac for lactose uh fermentation. OK. |
|
| 29:30 | it has it and lactose is then you it'll use it, |
|
| 29:34 | And we can see the phenotype in we test for it, right. |
|
| 29:38 | you'll be doing this in lab This week. In fact, you |
|
| 29:42 | the lactose uh fermentation. So you ph indicator. So this is telling |
|
| 29:47 | fermentation is or acidic change is a indicator. Yellow. Oh That's that's |
|
| 29:52 | positive phenotype for lactose. It must the lactose Z OK. You can |
|
| 29:59 | see that on a plate, Red color is uh again, color |
|
| 30:04 | , acidic fermentation, right? Colorless . They those guys can't ferment |
|
| 30:09 | right? So very basic uh qualitative quant quality of test for this |
|
| 30:15 | Ok. So no, but the a phenotype is the functioning of protein |
|
| 30:21 | , right? In a cell, ? Uh when those proteins don't |
|
| 30:25 | right, then things can happen, ? Sometimes, usually not good. |
|
| 30:31 | . So um here's another phenotype, ? Growths on blood, right? |
|
| 30:37 | if the cell has the ability to um destroy the red blood cells |
|
| 30:41 | it, then it'll have an enzyme it and you'll see clear zones around |
|
| 30:47 | cells. OK. So again, another expression of phenotype, right? |
|
| 30:52 | always expressed only express when there's red cells around, right? Otherwise you |
|
| 30:57 | see it right? So phenotypes can and go. But you know, |
|
| 31:02 | they're seen or not, depends on needs of the cell really. |
|
| 31:07 | Um All right. So here's another of way of looking at this. |
|
| 31:13 | um you know, tying the phenotype genotype into an expression. OK. |
|
| 31:19 | this is a, what's it called rapid uh ID test kit? |
|
| 31:26 | Um Basically, it's like a uh inch long cylinder and it has multiple |
|
| 31:33 | each one for a different biochemical OK. So it actually has a |
|
| 31:39 | loop that runs through the whole You actually take a top uh the |
|
| 31:42 | , the uh the one end of comes off, exposing the loop. |
|
| 31:47 | you like flame it right, touch colony and then slide it through and |
|
| 31:52 | basically innoculates all the compartments at one . OK. So if you had |
|
| 31:56 | for the unknown project, you'd be in like two days. OK? |
|
| 32:00 | But anyway, uh so we um based on different color reactions, it |
|
| 32:05 | you, OK. It's positive for test negative for that one, |
|
| 32:08 | blah, blah. And you get , you get like a, you |
|
| 32:11 | tally up the pluses and minuses and get like a code number code and |
|
| 32:16 | tells you what it is. Hey, we're just gonna focus on |
|
| 32:19 | compartment here, right? So this urea test. This is, and |
|
| 32:22 | are tests done for enteric organisms like coli and et cetera. OK? |
|
| 32:28 | so a positive result is a purple . All right. So if it |
|
| 32:32 | that color, it's got that right? And so you go |
|
| 32:35 | well, what does that mean? . Well, this, this back |
|
| 32:40 | , right? So that means that organism has this enzyme urease enzyme. |
|
| 32:46 | ? You can carry out this reaction is urea uh hydroly it uh producing |
|
| 32:51 | ammonia. OK. This produces makes a, makes a purplish |
|
| 32:57 | OK? And so OK, that's what it is on the protein |
|
| 33:02 | , right? This is a So OK. Well, then that |
|
| 33:05 | translate to some genes in, in way, right? So then we |
|
| 33:09 | back down to here. So this is uh gram negative has this |
|
| 33:16 | somewhere on its chromosome. OK? So we do the expression process, |
|
| 33:21 | ? So a plym brings about, us a copy of an RN, |
|
| 33:26 | copy of the gene. OK? The way we have, why, |
|
| 33:32 | do it this way? Well, that produces an MRN a, a |
|
| 33:38 | RN, a transcript mean the same . OK. Same thing. And |
|
| 33:43 | , um, we, this, process here can be carried out at |
|
| 33:49 | time. It, of course, depends on the needs of the |
|
| 33:53 | Things are controlling when this happens or happen. OK? But, but |
|
| 33:58 | , that's, that's the case. ? So the gene itself is the |
|
| 34:03 | thing here. OK? Not always , but when it needs to, |
|
| 34:07 | can be, right? So these the RNAs, the messenger RNAs, |
|
| 34:13 | transcripts become the, the um working if you will like the xerox machine |
|
| 34:20 | you have your copy of the Now that's, that's the working |
|
| 34:23 | And you can then, and these last, these don't last for life |
|
| 34:27 | the cell once they're made certainly in , they last maybe two or three |
|
| 34:32 | , they're gone, they just They're, they're degraded, right? |
|
| 34:36 | you don't want them hanging around right? If they are, then |
|
| 34:41 | will be expressed. So transcription, first part, second part translation, |
|
| 34:49 | ? This is where ribosome. So have different RN A molecules becoming involved |
|
| 34:53 | , in the process of going from to protein. OK? So you |
|
| 34:58 | MRN A, you have a ply make AM RN A and MRN A |
|
| 35:04 | as a template for RS. And so this is kind of where |
|
| 35:09 | comes together, right? Ribosome binds the transcript. It's like a platform |
|
| 35:16 | for Trnas to come in. Because these guys are carrying amino |
|
| 35:23 | So remember, proteins are sequences of acids, right? So, amino |
|
| 35:28 | are inserted based on the position of nucleotides in the transcript, which is |
|
| 35:35 | on the position of the nucleotides in DNA. OK. So this is |
|
| 35:42 | the the information but we're just converting into a little bit of a different |
|
| 35:47 | right into RN A form because that make us our copies of transcripts that |
|
| 35:52 | we can then translate into protein. , and these things move down transcript |
|
| 36:00 | as they do produce a protein, . So remember, you know, |
|
| 36:05 | pro caros right, we can you have multiples of these on a transcript |
|
| 36:10 | poly rhizome formation, right? So can make a lots of protein very |
|
| 36:15 | . OK. So um then this last part of this is to |
|
| 36:21 | Remember that proteins have a very specific dimensional structure, right? If they |
|
| 36:27 | get into that form, they don't , right? And so a big |
|
| 36:31 | of it is to then fold up . OK? And then be a |
|
| 36:36 | enzyme. OK. So um so so again, these Mrnas don't last |
|
| 36:44 | long OK. While they do, are expressed into protein. OK. |
|
| 36:51 | , and that's OK. If they , you can always make more, |
|
| 36:55 | . And that's what the essence of is only, only doing this when |
|
| 37:00 | . OK. Produce, right? remember you can produce lots of |
|
| 37:04 | uh, lots of protein because of polyribosome effect, right? But then |
|
| 37:09 | can also very quickly shut it all . And so that's what really, |
|
| 37:13 | it's about is being efficient with all . OK? Only express what you |
|
| 37:19 | , shut it down when you don't it. And, and you |
|
| 37:23 | it's, and for most genes, , I'll say it's not necessarily |
|
| 37:28 | they're all off or they're all If they're on, it can be |
|
| 37:33 | continuum, they can be kind of level, maybe in the middle. |
|
| 37:37 | , it just depends, depends on , what's going on with the cell |
|
| 37:41 | . OK. But again, this here is, as I mentioned, |
|
| 37:46 | the same in us. It's the in a Coors, the same in |
|
| 37:49 | mouse, the same in the It's the same in a blue bonnet |
|
| 37:52 | . OK. Um So uh it's what it is, right? |
|
| 37:58 | how we are able to do the we do, right. That's why |
|
| 38:03 | any cell they're full of ribosomes, ? Because this, this kind of |
|
| 38:08 | is occurring all the time. And um uh it's basically what enables |
|
| 38:14 | to function. OK. And granted proteins are probably enzymes of some sort |
|
| 38:20 | carry out chemical reactions, but there some that have strictly structural functions. |
|
| 38:26 | . Um So putting a magnetic context infectious disease, right? Virulence |
|
| 38:31 | This is how they are produced. . So um uh the vaccines, |
|
| 38:38 | ? Uh the COVID vaccine is an A vaccine. OK. So this |
|
| 38:43 | the method of delivery in the vaccine is was transcripts. Um but the |
|
| 38:49 | uh synthesized uh viral parts when when you expressed it, viral parts |
|
| 38:55 | produced and then those went on the to alert your immune system, |
|
| 39:00 | we'll talk about that later. but just while we're here, |
|
| 39:03 | that's, that's what the COVID vaccine , is, is this and |
|
| 39:08 | it's expressing viral proteins. OK. um the uh OK. So phenotype |
|
| 39:16 | . So certainly genotype here, here the genotype, right? We're producing |
|
| 39:20 | phenotype right here. A positive So, um OK, it's a |
|
| 39:26 | bit more the same here. So , we've talked mentioned these already. |
|
| 39:32 | So here the begin the process, ? DNA RN A, the protein |
|
| 39:36 | have different parts involved, right? how are these connected? Well, |
|
| 39:41 | connected through, right? Various RN molecules and bring about bring about the |
|
| 39:48 | , right? We have a genotype and DNA and we convert that in |
|
| 39:52 | protein to the action of RN A to make a transcript ribosomes to bind |
|
| 39:59 | to the, to the um transcript to help bring the amino acids to |
|
| 40:05 | um to the site and then in process of making a protein. |
|
| 40:09 | So it's different types of RN A that are, that are bringing this |
|
| 40:14 | about that. Uh How do it the genotype effect phenotype? That's what |
|
| 40:20 | talk about at the end, So if you make changes in the |
|
| 40:24 | , you, you change the actual in there, then you're gonna |
|
| 40:28 | that's gonna result in different, could in differences in amino acid sequences, |
|
| 40:34 | ? So that's, and then that result in proteins that maybe don't |
|
| 40:38 | right? OK. So many genetic are of that type where you produce |
|
| 40:45 | proteins because you have mutated genes. ? And that's what um gene therapy |
|
| 40:51 | all about. Our, our, method is to kind of fix those |
|
| 40:55 | and get back to the original gene uh sequence should be to make a |
|
| 41:00 | protein. So, um how would in fact preserve that's preserved through the |
|
| 41:09 | of DNA? Right? So a divides um DNA is copied and given |
|
| 41:15 | um each daughter's cell, right? it's, you carry out it's multiple |
|
| 41:20 | , but that's how you can you preserve the material uh in that |
|
| 41:25 | , right? You have a right? Your, your genes are |
|
| 41:28 | to the next generation. OK. OK. Let's see what we got |
|
| 41:37 | . OK. Uh Any questions about ? OK. All right. |
|
| 41:44 | All right. So let's look at . All right. So the pro |
|
| 41:48 | genome, so your genome. So genome period, when you hear that |
|
| 41:52 | like what is the total amount of material in the organism? OK. |
|
| 42:01 | us it's our 46 chromosomes. That's our genome. That's the human |
|
| 42:07 | . Um For most procaryotes, um bacteria, it's a sin single |
|
| 42:17 | chromosome. OK. And can be associated plasma. Uh This is just |
|
| 42:24 | . So chromosome of course, is large plasmas are very small. |
|
| 42:29 | So a chromosome can be mm a base pairs give or take on |
|
| 42:35 | A plasm is like 7000, 10,000 on average so much smaller. And |
|
| 42:45 | , but a bacterium or an archaea have its chromosome, right? But |
|
| 42:49 | multiple of these plains. OK? we'll talk more about plains in on |
|
| 42:56 | in the context of um movement of of genetic material between cells. |
|
| 43:02 | one of the ways they do right? Many antibiotic resistances, those |
|
| 43:07 | are on plasmas. OK. So , so pro genome can be it's |
|
| 43:13 | plus any plasmas. It it has , not, not all but many |
|
| 43:19 | and it would be part of the that it's so inheritance, right? |
|
| 43:24 | we're sexually reproducing beings, obviously. we, you know, we have |
|
| 43:28 | reproduction, right? Male and female of the species mate and have a |
|
| 43:33 | , right? So, but pro can't do that. Right. So |
|
| 43:38 | we call vertical transmission, which is I just described, you know, |
|
| 43:41 | humans do, right? Um, we do so using um genetically dissimilar |
|
| 43:49 | , right? Your mother and father clones? But they're genetically different. |
|
| 43:53 | . Not a lot. That maybe difference. But, um, but |
|
| 43:59 | , and they're producing a hybrid, ? We're all hybrids, right? |
|
| 44:02 | products of genetically dissimilar parents. A bacterium right? Here's a |
|
| 44:10 | OK. This uh theoretically, On paper, these are genetically identical |
|
| 44:17 | , right? They think mitosis, ? Your skin cells divide by |
|
| 44:23 | they're gonna be identical cells. Similarly, in binary fission, |
|
| 44:28 | We've got two genetically equivalent cells. ? That's vertical transmission, right? |
|
| 44:35 | , think parent, the child or cell, the daughter cell, that's |
|
| 44:38 | vertical. OK. So, um what's missing here is, is, |
|
| 44:45 | this kind of goes back to understanding basics, the very basics of |
|
| 44:51 | right? Where uh variation, genetic is the key to success. |
|
| 44:59 | Successful species have genetic variation. Now, that depends on the environment |
|
| 45:06 | in that they live in, but won't go down in the weeds with |
|
| 45:11 | . So let's just kind of keep , you know, let's just say |
|
| 45:13 | everybody in, if we were all , every if we were all genetically |
|
| 45:19 | in this room, right? Uh we all had, we would all |
|
| 45:24 | um uh react or adapt in the way to any changes that might |
|
| 45:30 | OK? Because you're all clones, all the same, same protein, |
|
| 45:34 | everything you're going to adapt, you're to um react in the same way |
|
| 45:40 | a condition. OK? But if got subpopulation that vary a little |
|
| 45:47 | OK, then there's a chance that something happens, changes the current environment |
|
| 45:52 | maybe this subgroup has a better combination genes and they'll better survive. It |
|
| 45:58 | that species to survive, right? variation obviously is a good thing, |
|
| 46:05 | ? If you didn't have variation, wouldn't have that. OK. And |
|
| 46:09 | what do bacteria do you look at and go well, it's a xerox |
|
| 46:13 | , right? Just punch how many you want, right? Everybody's |
|
| 46:17 | Well, not quite OK, because can have mutation here, mutations can |
|
| 46:22 | here that can be passed on. . Uh And that's one way |
|
| 46:27 | they have variation. We, we do that but we also |
|
| 46:31 | we mate with genetically dissimilar individuals. that introduces a variation, right? |
|
| 46:35 | I remember um you remember um uh , right? The production of |
|
| 46:42 | right? So the gametes in your are one cell type that are genetically |
|
| 46:48 | from your other cells, right? of the process of meiosis generates |
|
| 46:52 | right? But in a bacterium, know, you can have mutations here |
|
| 46:57 | are translated to here. Um But they have the ability to do |
|
| 47:01 | this is something we can't do. that's OK for I had, I |
|
| 47:07 | a different sequence here than I All right. So the vertical |
|
| 47:10 | So again, relating back to preserving genome, right, copy it. |
|
| 47:15 | one gets a copy, right? this semiconservative application again, universal, |
|
| 47:20 | how all DNA is copied for the part here on earth. OK. |
|
| 47:25 | so all that means is it eats , right? So here's our, |
|
| 47:32 | , our uh back up. So our DNA. So in the process |
|
| 47:35 | replication, we're gonna copy each OK? Each strand is a template |
|
| 47:43 | there we go. OK. So of this complementary base pairing, |
|
| 47:49 | So the, the strands we copy way and we end up with two |
|
| 47:55 | copies. OK? And so, , universal process is how all things |
|
| 48:00 | earth replicate. Um And so uh preserves the genetic material. OK. |
|
| 48:08 | , here's, here's what I was to earlier. So uh so bacteria |
|
| 48:11 | do this, of course, like any other living thing, but they |
|
| 48:16 | also do horizontal transmission. That's what talk about on Thursday. But um |
|
| 48:21 | they can mate, so to speak acquire DNA from other members in the |
|
| 48:27 | , right? So it's not a transmission, it's horizontal transmission. |
|
| 48:31 | They can be uh members of the species, maybe not of the same |
|
| 48:36 | . OK. So, um and different mechanisms by which this happens, |
|
| 48:41 | go, we'll go through that on . But um it's, it's really |
|
| 48:46 | many types of antibiotic resistance are transferred spread rapidly in the population through these |
|
| 48:53 | of mechanisms. OK. But it a way uh to introduce variation, |
|
| 49:00 | ? So mutation and horizontal gene you can acquire this, this, |
|
| 49:06 | hypothetical cell here could acquire different genes another organism this way. OK. |
|
| 49:11 | another closely related or maybe not so related bacterium, it can acquire new |
|
| 49:17 | that way. So variation, Introduce variation. And so um |
|
| 49:24 | so or no, so the nuclear based sequences. So what, what |
|
| 49:27 | like a it might be just a sequence of A S and GS and |
|
| 49:33 | and CS is actually not random the very specific sequence. OK? |
|
| 49:39 | codes for a specific protein. And so OK. So let's look |
|
| 49:44 | this question here, right? So genetic code, right? So complete |
|
| 49:51 | . OK. Um Gene, the code is blank, blank. |
|
| 50:01 | So remember Jack Code, that's that it'll uh a code book, |
|
| 50:08 | That's what you look up to OK. What does this, what |
|
| 50:11 | this mean? And what does this mean? OK. OK. |
|
| 50:52 | It's counted down to 10. Some people let's see. So we |
|
| 51:05 | C OK. So the genetic code that little booklet or table, |
|
| 51:12 | Better or that table you look up you go OK, what does um |
|
| 51:18 | nucleotide sequence mean? In terms of amino acid sequence, right? So |
|
| 51:23 | what we're doing here in gene expression going from a DNA to an RN |
|
| 51:28 | form then ultimately to a protein, ? So it's a sequence of, |
|
| 51:33 | , of amino acids. So the code is actually not DNA, you |
|
| 51:38 | think that, but it's not We are, um, the genetic |
|
| 51:46 | tells us what that DNA sequence basically , so to speak. OK? |
|
| 51:50 | more correctly, it's what is the RN A, right? So we |
|
| 51:54 | DNA, messenger RN A and then is what is read by the |
|
| 52:00 | OK. And that's where Trnas come , right? Read nucleotide base in |
|
| 52:09 | messenger RN A. OK? And , OK, this is a |
|
| 52:14 | This is a next one is a a, next one is bla |
|
| 52:19 | OK. So it's, it's not , it's not determined by the |
|
| 52:24 | OK? It doesn't have anything with numbers. Uh But it's C |
|
| 52:30 | And so, uh and you'll see , let me look at this |
|
| 52:35 | OK. Uh Here. OK. um so here is a segment of |
|
| 52:42 | here. OK. And so the , this stuff is universal, |
|
| 52:48 | There's terms we use when we talk nucleic acids. OK? And so |
|
| 52:54 | of those is this sense, antisense , uh plus minus coding, |
|
| 53:02 | right? So these terms all go . And so it's the same |
|
| 53:07 | So here we're looking at DNA double , right. It's the same |
|
| 53:12 | All, all that applies if you're about DNA, DNA, DNA RN |
|
| 53:20 | rnarn A, right? You can hybrid, all three hybrids. |
|
| 53:25 | Um, and that's especially helpful to this. We start talking about viruses |
|
| 53:33 | viruses can have all three types of hybrids. But it doesn't matter because |
|
| 53:38 | language is the same. Right? , it's all about the relationship of |
|
| 53:43 | strand to the other, right? you see here, double strand of |
|
| 53:47 | , like we've got in our one strand is a plus or sense |
|
| 53:53 | coding strand, the other one is and it's called the antisense the template |
|
| 54:00 | the minus strand. OK. And true again, whether it's DNA, |
|
| 54:05 | , DNA rnarnar, those relationships are same. OK? And so the |
|
| 54:11 | thing to note and I'm not gonna on this but, but the, |
|
| 54:15 | see the five, right? The and the three here, right? |
|
| 54:19 | that there's actually a, in all of nucleic acids are the same. |
|
| 54:26 | ? And my pen is not So let me there's gonna be a |
|
| 54:29 | here and that's gonna be a OK? So you have a 5 |
|
| 54:36 | 3, a 3 to 5 complimentary each other, right? It's just |
|
| 54:42 | , it's just the, the language use when talking about the, doesn't |
|
| 54:46 | what source or whatever. OK? what, it's how you refer to |
|
| 54:51 | . OK? And it just has do with the actual chemistry of the |
|
| 54:56 | , you number the carbons and I'm , I don't wanna go into |
|
| 54:58 | but that, that, that's where numbers are coming from. And |
|
| 55:01 | you just have those ants, the and the three prime they call |
|
| 55:04 | OK. And so the, the reason to remember that is, is |
|
| 55:10 | in terms of a ribosome, Because here is RN A now and |
|
| 55:14 | know it's RN A because it has US. So you see us in |
|
| 55:20 | sequence, it's R A, if see TS instead of use it's |
|
| 55:26 | OK. And so you see here five, right? So again, |
|
| 55:30 | it's DNA to DNA, DNA, rnarnarn A, they were gonna be |
|
| 55:35 | is 53, the complementary strand is to 5 to it. OK. |
|
| 55:41 | universal. So, so what about ? Well, this is one of |
|
| 55:46 | , so whats right? So when R translates, it's going to attach |
|
| 55:53 | the five prime pin and go three . OK. As you see |
|
| 55:59 | and this is what attracts it to site is a ribosome binding site. |
|
| 56:03 | sees that binds and off it goes . So, and once it |
|
| 56:09 | then it's free. Now another one pop on, then another one, |
|
| 56:13 | another one. So that's how these can line up with ribosomes. |
|
| 56:17 | So, um OK. Uh let's here. I'm getting ahead of myself |
|
| 56:22 | little bit. So, let's look um OK. So the genetic code |
|
| 56:28 | is based on the transcript, So we're gonna, we're gonna read |
|
| 56:32 | and this sequence here of ribo nucleotides tell us uh what the actual polypeptide |
|
| 56:42 | is. OK. And it So through the action of transfer |
|
| 56:48 | Right. So we have transcriptions right, transcribing a gene a then |
|
| 56:56 | . Right. Right. Was on and transfer RNAs come in, they |
|
| 57:00 | recognize codons, right? This is three base sequences that's a codon, |
|
| 57:07 | ? And um the ribosome can recognize . So you have ribosomes that are |
|
| 57:12 | for each of those. OK. we can see that I'll refer back |
|
| 57:16 | this picture in a second. So here, so this is just kind |
|
| 57:21 | meant to, to help you understand plus minus the sense anti sense. |
|
| 57:26 | um so the terms that are synonymous each other plus plus sense in |
|
| 57:34 | plus sense, coding mean same thing antisense, noncoding template, all |
|
| 57:43 | OK. So uh OK. So is our, this could be your |
|
| 57:48 | . OK. We have one called sense one called the anti sense. |
|
| 57:52 | the sense strand is containing, that's the the important info, that's |
|
| 57:57 | , that's the sequence of bases that what protein will be made. |
|
| 58:03 | And so when we, when we a transcript, we, what we |
|
| 58:08 | is that we want the sense strand that's the coding information, right. |
|
| 58:12 | we're making an RN A form of , right? And this is how |
|
| 58:16 | happens. So if we want we copy the anti scent strand, |
|
| 58:22 | with our RN A PLY and when do that, we get this, |
|
| 58:28 | ? So if you compare that MRN to the top five prime sense |
|
| 58:35 | you see they're the same, GG A AAA GG A, of |
|
| 58:41 | , when you get to a thine T that's a cell, but it's |
|
| 58:47 | , right? So this is, we made an MRN A that's identical |
|
| 58:50 | our coding strand and we did it we copied the anti sense strand. |
|
| 58:56 | . Well, it all has to with the, the nature of complementary |
|
| 58:59 | pairing, right? That's why it's this way. So the other |
|
| 59:03 | to kind of remember is when you a plus strand, you make a |
|
| 59:09 | strand, when you copy a you make a plus, if you |
|
| 59:14 | kind of stamp that in your brain when we get to viral, a |
|
| 59:19 | a viruses and how they replicate, where you wanna gonna wanna remember this |
|
| 59:25 | the plus minus minus plus can confuse . But that, that's what, |
|
| 59:29 | what that refers to. OK. um OK. What was it? |
|
| 59:36 | . And this just shows you um we, we, we break these |
|
| 59:41 | into three base sequences. OK. there's, and there's a, |
|
| 59:45 | there's punctuation, let's say lack of better word in the transcript, there's |
|
| 59:50 | like a sentence, you know, of a sentence, right? Is |
|
| 59:54 | first letter, the first word is . Uh There may be a comma |
|
| 59:58 | there, uh that it ends with period, right? So there's, |
|
| 60:02 | , that's how we know what the is, right? And how it |
|
| 60:05 | and ends. Similarly. There's, similar pun punctuation, right? And |
|
| 60:11 | we're gonna see that here. So uh so here's the genetic |
|
| 60:16 | right? So you see it's, RN A, it's not DNA, |
|
| 60:20 | ? Because you have cells here, ? And so um and it's what |
|
| 60:26 | call redundant, right? So you that for vale, for example, |
|
| 60:30 | L there's 1234 codons that correspond right? And similarly, for the |
|
| 60:37 | , there's multiple types. OK? what's meant by redundancy, there's repeatability |
|
| 60:42 | the sequence. OK? And you know, there's 20 amino acids |
|
| 60:46 | 64 codons. OK? And so punctuation comes here, start, hold |
|
| 60:52 | , stop codon. That's your beginning the sentence, end of sentence. |
|
| 60:58 | ? And so here's an example. here's our uh sense, our coding |
|
| 61:03 | , we're gonna copy the anti right? To get our MRN |
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| 61:08 | OK? And so now we go , what's, how do we know |
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| 61:12 | what here? Well, that's how look for the punctuation marks, |
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| 61:16 | So, a UG Ccaggg and so until we get to one of these |
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| 61:23 | cos that's the end sentence. And this, this, this marks |
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| 61:29 | polypeptide, right? And so, and the, and that it |
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| 61:35 | you can look these up on the but it, it translates into me |
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| 61:39 | gly, OK. And so one to note, OK. Um The |
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| 61:46 | in the A UG start codon very uh like problems involving, OK, |
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| 61:54 | a sequence translated, right? They make it very easy for you and |
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| 61:58 | have, it'll just begin like right? Make it very easy that |
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| 62:03 | UGS at the beginning in reality, a transcript, A UG is never |
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| 62:09 | , the A in A UG is the first base. OK? There's |
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| 62:13 | bases into the transcript. You can that just put back up just for |
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| 62:16 | second. You can see that here ? Here is the A UG actually |
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| 62:22 | here, but there's, there's sequences that, right? So don't, |
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| 62:26 | look for it at the very right? Just start at the five |
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| 62:32 | because that's how rhizome reads it. how ribosome is gonna read. It |
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| 62:35 | 5 to 3. So you look , where, where's the first instance |
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| 62:40 | an A UG? And that's where start. OK. And so this |
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| 62:45 | a very basic example, obviously, that's what you're doing. So it |
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| 62:49 | be preceded by multiple nucleotides up But you keep going and go oh |
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| 62:53 | . Where's the A UG Bang Then you go 123123 so forth. |
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| 63:00 | . Um All right. So it's to remember that. OK. Um |
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| 63:06 | right. All right. Any questions , you know, again, |
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| 63:14 | this is as much detail as going than this in terms of detail. |
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| 63:19 | . So it's really just knowing, the, the um you know, |
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| 63:27 | are the parts involved? You and we're not going deeper than |
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| 63:30 | right? Transcription involves that translation involves . OK. Um So you |
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| 63:37 | the um you know, the anti sense strand, you know, |
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| 63:41 | you uh you know, I think you just look at this diagram, |
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| 63:45 | think they can, they can help you have questions. Let me |
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| 63:48 | OK. Uh But I mean, , this is all universal, |
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| 63:51 | This is how it happens in every thing. OK? Um And then |
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| 63:56 | the gene code table. OK? And then the how you decide for |
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| 64:02 | transcript? OK. So uh go ahead. Oh I, I |
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| 64:18 | you are you do you do you to know like the coons and amino |
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| 64:22 | ? They could for no, absolutely . Do not memorize this tape. |
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| 64:28 | . Do not memorize that table. . No, you don't to memorize |
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| 64:34 | . No, I mean, I think there may be one question |
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| 64:39 | this song. I think at the has there may be a question like |
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| 64:41 | ? It has the table there. yeah. Yeah. Memorizing these |
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| 64:45 | My God. Don't, don't do . I don't even know what they |
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| 64:48 | . I mean, I don't have stuff memorized. Ok. Um, |
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| 64:52 | , it's one of those things, you end up, you know, |
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| 64:56 | in gene expression or whatever might be , you kind of just know it |
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| 65:00 | , you know, you don't even it. Absolutely not any other |
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| 65:05 | Yeah. 20 years and 14. . You, ok. So, |
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| 65:18 | , the point of that was in reality when you're, when you're |
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| 65:23 | for these things, um you will that the A UG is never at |
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| 65:30 | very beginning of the transcript, There's always like several nucleotides before it |
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| 65:36 | up. So the, so the there was, I didn't really show |
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| 65:38 | that. Well, I only have here, but in reality, there |
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| 65:42 | be 30 or 40. And so just start, you start landmark is |
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| 65:47 | , you start at the five prime and you go, OK, |
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| 65:50 | here I go. Where's the first UG show up? And then that's |
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| 65:56 | that and then you go. All . Yeah. Uh Any other |
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| 66:01 | OK. All right. Uh Let's . OK. So this um just |
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| 66:08 | little bit about and we're not gonna deep into this but uh mutation. |
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| 66:14 | these are, of course, can a source of variation it and these |
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| 66:19 | called by various things, right? The, but what they do is |
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| 66:25 | alter the nucleotide sequence. The right? We're only gonna focus on |
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| 66:30 | single based changes, right? And base is simply just a nucleotide is |
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| 66:35 | of the, is an A AG or a, right. So we're |
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| 66:38 | gonna focus on those types which are common, rather common. Um And |
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| 66:44 | you can change them right through what call munos, uh chemicals, |
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| 66:50 | radiation can cause this. Um it to us, right? You have |
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| 66:54 | sunburn that sunburn. You have basically radiation to create mutations in your skin |
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| 67:01 | . DNA, right? And you rid of those, you know, |
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| 67:06 | you know your skin gets uh red it peels, right? The peeling |
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| 67:09 | basically one of those dead cells that , that are damaged. OK. |
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| 67:13 | , but you are definitely creating mutations . OK? But your body has |
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| 67:17 | way to say, OK, these bad cells, let's get rid of |
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| 67:20 | , right? So that's, that's good thing, obviously. Um But |
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| 67:25 | um the skin cancers, right, you have like a mold and things |
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| 67:28 | that, that don't um you're too for that, but uh they uh |
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| 67:32 | will uh can be cancer cancerous and , they due to radiation that initiated |
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| 67:38 | mutations. So um and so this be passed on. OK. And |
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| 67:44 | the um uh so the effects of mutation, OK. For the most |
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| 67:51 | , a mutation either has no effect it's bad. OK. That's usually |
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| 67:57 | case. But not always right. we know this because, you |
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| 68:02 | evolution has shows us that mutations have to various types of, of |
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| 68:11 | innovations in life. So certainly it happens, ok, for |
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| 68:15 | But, um, what we call silent mutation, that's one that has |
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| 68:19 | effect, it occurs. You don't know anything has happened because there's no |
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| 68:23 | at all. Ok. Lethal. pretty self explanatory. That's gonna end |
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| 68:27 | killing the organism. OK? Are , right? But you can only |
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| 68:34 | these, the effect. OK? the context of OK, this organism |
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| 68:41 | a mutation, what's gonna happen? , if it's bad, it'll |
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| 68:48 | All right. If it's silent, no effect. Is it beneficial? |
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| 68:52 | that you can only really evaluate as organism reproduces and produces more offspring than |
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| 69:01 | generation and so forth. And then see, OK. Is this mutation |
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| 69:05 | an effect in terms of, these, this species is now surviving |
|
| 69:10 | . These people with these ones with mutation are surviving better. And so |
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| 69:14 | you can say, oh yeah, , that's a beneficial mutation. |
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| 69:19 | So you have to see it it's more time effect to it. |
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| 69:22 | have to see it in the, the sub successive generations. Is it |
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| 69:27 | ? Is it helpful? That's how evaluate? OK. Uh The |
|
| 69:32 | I think we talked about this So if you, if a veteran |
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| 69:37 | a deficiency, it can't make it can't make an amino acid. |
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| 69:42 | can, you can call it an , specifically the Oxytrol for that particular |
|
| 69:47 | . OK. And so uh spontaneous , these are just mistakes that happen |
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| 69:52 | replication. Uh You do have you do have the ability to fix |
|
| 69:57 | . OK? We, we have very good ability to do that. |
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| 70:01 | . But other forms can do it not at the same level, |
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| 70:05 | So we're about one per 10 to 10th. OK. Very low. |
|
| 70:11 | But bacteria are kind of in this , right? So they can because |
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| 70:15 | grow so fast, right? One colony on a plate is a million |
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| 70:19 | more cells, right? So even a single colony with a, with |
|
| 70:24 | spontaneous mutation rate like this, you'll a couple in there that probably have |
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| 70:28 | kind of mutation because they grow so , right? So, um but |
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| 70:33 | a, it's a way to make , right? Potentially. OK. |
|
| 70:36 | the, the mutations we're gonna look are simply just changing one of the |
|
| 70:41 | in the sequence and what's the OK. And so here's our, |
|
| 70:46 | just a segment of a normal quote muted sequence, right? T through |
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| 70:53 | here, right? So that gives this transcript and gives us this amino |
|
| 70:57 | sequence. OK. All right. what happens if you make changes |
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| 71:02 | Well, here is one. So in this sense mutation, so |
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| 71:07 | gonna focus here on this one in . So we're gonna change. So |
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| 71:12 | was ac, right? And it's be changed to A T. |
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| 71:16 | Me. So what's the result? , when we make a transcript of |
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| 71:21 | , right, we've now cha have A there instead of A G. |
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| 71:26 | . And so that changes the amino sequence. It was glycine in that |
|
| 71:32 | . Now, it's Siri. So the mis mis sense mutation is |
|
| 71:40 | where, you know, is is it good, bad or |
|
| 71:44 | Well, um it depends the change made glycine is soon. So remember |
|
| 71:51 | your amino acids can, they're grouped on kind of their similar chemistry? |
|
| 71:58 | . And so if they happen to very different chemically, OK, then |
|
| 72:04 | can have a substantial effect, Because remember, you know, they're |
|
| 72:08 | you these as straight lines, the aren't some specific shapes. OK? |
|
| 72:13 | if you fiddle with the shape, can lose function and what controls the |
|
| 72:17 | , it's interactions between amino acids charge , uh hydrophobic interactions um sometimes are |
|
| 72:27 | . So it just, it just and if you, if you change |
|
| 72:30 | too much, then that can change structure, right? So maybe it's |
|
| 72:35 | 100% functional, maybe it's only 50% or maybe it's not functional at all |
|
| 72:40 | maybe it's very close, right? it just depends on the nature of |
|
| 72:45 | change and the chemical difference between the types. OK? Um It could |
|
| 72:53 | that maybe a change occurs. That , it's still the same amino acid |
|
| 72:57 | would be a silent mutation, So, it, it, |
|
| 73:00 | it's, the sequence has changed but , it hasn't changed enough. It's |
|
| 73:03 | remember you have multiple codons for the amino acid, it could be that |
|
| 73:07 | still stays in the glycine. just depends. Ok. So a |
|
| 73:13 | of other changes that might occur again, here's our normal sequence is |
|
| 73:19 | nonsense mutation, right? So here changing the T to an A and |
|
| 73:26 | produces a uag stop codon. So you produce a protein that's only a |
|
| 73:33 | of the size. It's supposed to , these are generally lethal. These |
|
| 73:37 | not gonna be functional. OK? gonna be probably mostly bad. |
|
| 73:43 | And I can imagine a scenario where gonna be really functional, right? |
|
| 73:47 | then this one a frame. So basically, either deleting completely or |
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| 73:56 | adding a base. And if you're that, you're altering the sequence at |
|
| 74:03 | point after the change. OK. we're normal right here here, but |
|
| 74:11 | changed, deleted that base. we've altered the sequence and those, |
|
| 74:19 | are generally lethal as well, Lethal, lethal. The scents are |
|
| 74:24 | the only ones that you may have chance of it being OK? Maybe |
|
| 74:28 | , right? But these two generally good. Ok. Um All |
|
| 74:35 | we'll review this again at the start time, folks. Thanks. See |
|
| 74:40 | Thursday. So Yeah. |
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