| 00:04 | So this is lecture two of And we talked about this mind body |
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| 00:11 | . That was a problem because people that mind is somewhere else and the |
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| 00:20 | is separate from the mind. Renee the cars in the Western |
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| 00:24 | Although this mind, body distinction uh disputed everywhere. It's being talked about |
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| 00:31 | around the world. But in the world is Rene de Carte. And |
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| 00:35 | describes what we talked about reflexive And then he talks about behaviors that |
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| 00:42 | non reflexive. And his understanding of mind is that it's some sort of |
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| 00:48 | form of energy that has to enter the eyes in contact with the pineal |
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| 00:56 | in order to turn on the fluids the gasses in the ventricles. And |
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| 01:03 | that, because the we have the localization of the brain function, we |
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| 01:08 | the ventricle is where the brain function localized from there. Those nerves which |
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| 01:14 | thought as pipes will pump the gasses the fluids to move the muscles and |
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| 01:20 | execute the brain command, so to . So there is no dispute in |
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| 01:25 | modern neuroscience and in the modern age this mind is a function of a |
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| 01:31 | . It does come from the It comes from these neuronal networks that |
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| 01:36 | intricately interconnected throughout the brain. And is how emotions come about. Because |
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| 01:42 | we damage certain parts of the you can lose emotional response may not |
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| 01:49 | the same emotional range. Uh So other parts of the brain that will |
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| 01:57 | other losses of function, so to . But we understand that if there |
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| 02:02 | a loss of that matter, there's loss of that neural circuit, there's |
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| 02:08 | loss of function. So when there no matter, there is no mind |
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| 02:14 | you can close your eyes and not any external stimuli and you still have |
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| 02:19 | mind. So it does not necessarily to connect with something outside like rene |
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| 02:25 | thought. But he has taken this of reflexive behavior and fluid mechanical model |
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| 02:33 | the body and off the brain quite in his discussions. Now in the |
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| 02:40 | century, it's Luigi Galvani in the eighties at the University of Bologna that |
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| 02:47 | these current delivered uh through Leiden Jar current delivered through a rotating static |
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| 02:55 | It is basically an electrical generator. what he does is he dissects the |
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| 03:01 | and he dissects the frog. So exposes the nerve onto a muscle of |
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| 03:06 | frog and he shocks the muscle and muscle contracts. So he uses electricity |
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| 03:12 | shock the muscle and the muscle contracts then he uses the same electricity to |
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| 03:18 | the nerve. And when he shocks nerve, the muscle contracts again. |
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| 03:23 | now he has two, he has two excitable types of tissues. And |
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| 03:29 | date, there are two excitable tissues the body, the muscle tissue and |
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| 03:34 | nervous tissue. Ok. So we have that and we now know that |
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| 03:41 | are not water pipes or channels as . And many of his contemporaries have |
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| 03:46 | , but they are indeed electrical They can generate electricity and they're conductors |
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| 03:53 | that electricity, they can conduct that , the nerves can generate and conduct |
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| 04:00 | . And this is sort of an of wires running through the body and |
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| 04:05 | are very much like wires carrying the , the electrical current that then gets |
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| 04:11 | into chemical reactions with synoptic transmission. right, neuroscience, 19th century. |
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| 04:19 | we're getting into even more detail. looking at major divisions of the central |
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| 04:25 | system. So we are trying to this brain and brain stem and spinal |
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| 04:31 | , the structure that looks like one take it apart into pieces. And |
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| 04:37 | understand that the C MS is comprised the cerebrum, cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum |
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| 04:45 | the back of the head, brain on which cerebrum sits upon and then |
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| 04:51 | cord, it starts right here in cervical vertebra and extends down spinal cord |
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| 04:58 | to lumbar two lumbar three, your vertebra here. And from there, |
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| 05:03 | radiates out. Uh there's a bundle nerves, it's called cardi Alina or |
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| 05:09 | stale into the lower extremities. And be and MCY is some of the |
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| 05:15 | is now looking at the details of anatomy. And when you expose the |
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| 05:20 | cord, you notice that the spinal is sitting here. This is the |
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| 05:25 | , it's called the natural size. the front here. You have the |
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| 05:29 | that's surrounding the spinal cord and protecting spinal cord. And the backside is |
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| 05:35 | to as the dorsal side. And they dissect the spinal cord, they |
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| 05:39 | the spinal nerves radiating out in between vertebra. There's a spinal nerve that |
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| 05:46 | out. Now they start dissecting it and they realize that the spinal |
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| 05:51 | although it looks like one bundle, contains the apparent sensory component apparent is |
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| 05:58 | information to the central nervous system. these are the sensory neurons whose SOMA |
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| 06:05 | located outside the spinal cord in this . Here, those are the SOMA |
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| 06:11 | what we call dorsal root ganglion cells the sensory cells. Those sensory cells |
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| 06:17 | information of touch, temperature, chemical stimulation from the neck down. |
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| 06:25 | everything that is concerning is SOMA of information from the head down is processed |
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| 06:33 | the spinal cord, everything from head and information from the head and the |
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| 06:40 | is processed by a number of nerves are called cranial nerves in the brain |
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| 06:45 | that we will study to a certain in this course, also all of |
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| 06:51 | information. So now you have information in, it's apparent information and from |
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| 06:57 | dorsal side, that's where axons come , they contact motor neurons in the |
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| 07:02 | cord. And you have E bar the ones that leave the spinal or |
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| 07:07 | central nervous system and form the axons a part of the same nerve bundle |
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| 07:14 | they control the contraction of the muscles the movement of the skeletal muscles and |
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| 07:21 | bones and such. So you have somatosensory component, the sensory component on |
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| 07:28 | dorsal side and on the ventral you have a motor command component. |
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| 07:34 | interesting studies can happen now because we do human dissections and anatomy. We |
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| 07:39 | cut the nerves on the dorsal side ventral side and understand what kind of |
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| 07:45 | they subserve sensory versus motor. You the nerves on the dorsal side, |
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| 07:49 | won't be any feeling of sensation. you cut the nerves on the ventral |
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| 07:54 | , you won't be able to control muscles and contract the muscles. Of |
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| 07:59 | , this is done on the level the animals and also comparing it to |
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| 08:03 | human anatomy and the dissections in the body. And then uh in the |
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| 08:10 | of the 18th century and all the into the middle of the 19th century |
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| 08:17 | field is dominated by phrenology. And came about from the theories of Franz |
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| 08:23 | Gao and Gao's system claimed that the is the organ of the mind. |
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| 08:30 | we're no longer disputing the heart versus brain. The mind is composed of |
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| 08:36 | distinct and innate faculties. So our , our brains, we have distinct |
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| 08:42 | innate faculties. Uh Some of us at math, others are better |
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| 08:49 | Then we have runners and then we those that like to type a |
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| 08:54 | you know, so we all have innate qualities. Of course, as |
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| 08:58 | go through the nurture, the nature influenced by nurture and nature is your |
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| 09:04 | is influenced by nurture. And he postulates that if you took this mind |
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| 09:10 | , if you take the brain, postulates that the brain can be subdivided |
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| 09:16 | many different areas. So the mind composed of multiple distinct innate faculties because |
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| 09:21 | distinct. Each faculty must have a seat or area or organ that is |
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| 09:27 | for it. So for example, is addressing these different areas here and |
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| 09:35 | is actually painting them on the skull the surface of the skull. And |
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| 09:39 | saying that this area, for here is responsible for generosity. |
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| 09:48 | Uh Because the distinct each faculty must a syphilid c or organ, he |
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| 09:53 | 35 different areas on the skull. he says underneath there is organs, |
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| 09:58 | brain organs that can tell us something the surface of the skull. He |
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| 10:03 | the size of an organ, other being equal is the measure of its |
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| 10:09 | . So small muscle, you can £20 dumbbell, big muscle, you |
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| 10:15 | lift £200 dumbbell, big or big , big muscle, more power, |
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| 10:23 | muscle, little power. Ok. , it work with muscles, |
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| 10:30 | But is that true with brains? , because it's not all about the |
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| 10:38 | , it's about the complexity off, particular, the human brains that have |
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| 10:43 | many complex connections, interconnections and complex area and very complex networks. That's |
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| 10:51 | we're at the top of the food . Otherwise, if the size of |
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| 10:57 | organ is a measure that power, smartest animals in this world should be |
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| 11:03 | ones that have the largest brains in , that would be elephants, but |
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| 11:11 | don't have elephants as presidents yet. sitting in un or anything like |
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| 11:17 | So, so it's not, there much larger brains, much larger organs |
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| 11:22 | we have still more power in the brain and the larger brains from other |
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| 11:29 | . The other thing he says is the shape of the brain is determined |
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| 11:32 | the development of various organs. the shape of the brain is determined |
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| 11:38 | thos organs. As the skull takes shape from the brain, the surface |
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| 11:42 | the skull can be read as an index of psychological aptitudes and tendencies. |
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| 11:50 | is not right here, right? what is not? Right. |
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| 11:54 | ok, let's imagine the situation where is wrong with uh my mother in |
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| 12:01 | , she's so generous. She just away everything she gave away all the |
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| 12:06 | she gave away the wagon, got cows, she gave away the |
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| 12:10 | she just gives away everything, all food, the neighbors, she's so |
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| 12:14 | . Is, is that true? is something wrong with her? I'm |
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| 12:18 | take her to Doctor Gao Orno just a little uh uh session investigation. |
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| 12:26 | phrenologist would put a tool like this somebody's skull and a notebook right there |
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| 12:33 | a notebook, lots of notes and would measure the size of the skull |
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| 12:39 | different orientations and he was measure different and he would take notes in his |
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| 12:47 | and he would look at this chart on the skull and he would come |
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| 12:51 | and say, yeah, you know uh this area responsible for generosity. |
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| 12:56 | really big and I can, there a bump here on the skull. |
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| 13:00 | sorry, but you can't do anything her mother. She'll just keep giving |
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| 13:03 | the c and that's what the phrenologist you basically. So what are some |
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| 13:11 | the cool things that they initiated? did they go wrong? The cool |
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| 13:16 | that they started is they started thinking we kind of just think the brain |
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| 13:21 | matter, white matter. We have take this brain and we have to |
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| 13:24 | it into at least you thought different different functional areas. So that, |
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| 13:30 | is cool. Where does he go ? He goes wrong because he says |
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| 13:35 | can read the book by its cover that is not the case. You |
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| 13:42 | read the book by its cover. some very extreme cases. Yes. |
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| 13:48 | you're born, your skulls are the skull plays have lots use |
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| 13:54 | In fact, if you have an in the family around, you can |
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| 13:58 | a finger right here and you can a finger in the back and it |
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| 14:02 | pretty scary because it feels soft, feels like you're almost on the surface |
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| 14:07 | their brain. And that the skull they don't fuse for a good |
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| 14:12 | two years of your life, this sometimes doesn't always fuse and remains a |
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| 14:17 | bit between distance between the skull So it's true, you were |
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| 14:23 | your skull was the size of maybe fist. Now, our skulls are |
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| 14:29 | bigger as adults. The bone grows the developing structures. The bone is |
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| 14:34 | during early development. So as the grows, the bone around, it |
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| 14:39 | also in extreme cases, you may heard of a condition called hydrocephalus, |
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| 14:46 | individuals that have hydrocephalus will have abnormally heads. And it's usually typically a |
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| 14:56 | disorder where they have these abnormally shaved that look sort of like what we |
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| 15:03 | imagine are a little bit like alien like that. No, and that's |
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| 15:14 | there is accumulation of the fluid in ventricles, it's too much fluid. |
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| 15:19 | if that fluid doesn't get drained, gonna start pushing on the brain tissue |
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| 15:23 | it's gonna start pushing on the skull it's gonna start enlarging the skull. |
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| 15:28 | somewhere in here there, right, the shape of the skull can indicate |
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| 15:33 | about your brain. In this a severe developmental neurological condition like |
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| 15:39 | but not so much about innate faculties as generosity. So it's a pretty |
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| 15:50 | science. And I guess if you into the library in the 1848 1877 |
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| 15:58 | see these chronology, physiology, magnetism. There's a little bit of |
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| 16:05 | in there too. Uh And it's about how you read the surface of |
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| 16:10 | skull and how you interpret the abilities innate faculties of that individual. You're |
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| 16:17 | to correlate the function with the but you're correlating with the structure of |
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| 16:22 | shape of the skull, which is really the structure of the brain or |
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| 16:26 | underlying circuits then and nonetheless, it's the field for a long time. |
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| 16:32 | kind of a thinking in this, this journal as well. Also at |
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| 16:37 | same time in the 19th century, the middle of the 19th century, |
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| 16:42 | is a discovery of specific areas of brain that are responsible for specific functions |
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| 16:49 | that discovery comes about from the studies we call loss of function studies. |
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| 16:55 | , Doctor Paul Broca has a patient suffers from expressive aphasia, expressive aphasia |
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| 17:03 | inability or difficulty to convey thoughts through or writing. So you cannot express |
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| 17:10 | , you cannot express your speech either talking or writing. And after this |
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| 17:17 | dies, Doctor Paul Broer looks in brain and he literally sees a hole |
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| 17:22 | , how that hole came about It's a question. It could be |
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| 17:25 | brain injury, it could be something genetically, it could be a |
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| 17:29 | for example, that happened a long ago. But there's a hole and |
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| 17:34 | area right now where that hole was is referred to as brocha area. |
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| 17:40 | doctor Broer at the time, there's emails, there's no cell phones, |
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| 17:44 | are letters and carriages. So he letters to other uh scientists and doctors |
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| 17:51 | Europe mostly and sends those letters And he basically asked them, have |
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| 17:56 | encountered a patient that has a hole the brain and that maybe had this |
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| 18:04 | of expressive aphasia. And after he collects several brains, the people |
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| 18:09 | had expressive aphasia and all of them mortem. At that time, there |
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| 18:13 | also brain banks already. So you store the brains for further studies from |
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| 18:19 | that donate their brains. And at time, I don't know if they |
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| 18:22 | asked all of the people if they to donate them or just took them |
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| 18:27 | as much of the ethics in medicine there is now but there's many brains |
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| 18:32 | contain damage to this area. It's brochco area. Broca analysis, pronouns |
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| 18:38 | we speak with the left hemisphere, means that damage to a specific area |
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| 18:44 | the left hemisphere will cause expressive aphasia little bit later. There's another area |
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| 18:52 | is now called vernici area and damage Vernis area, which is located closer |
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| 18:58 | the parietal temporal lobe intersection. Here receptive aphasia. It involves difficulty or |
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| 19:07 | and understanding, spoken or written So the patient can read and see |
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| 19:13 | print but cannot make sense. receptive aphasia is receiving information. Expressive |
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| 19:20 | is expressing the language. What was area for the receptive aphasia? Uh |
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| 19:29 | or receptive aphasia. There are also other types of aphasia described here is |
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| 19:34 | amnesia, aphasia, the least severe of aphasia where you have difficulty in |
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| 19:38 | the correct names or particular objects, and places nouns or verbs. It's |
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| 19:46 | so bad. Like uh I think suffered from transient amnesia, aphasia sometimes |
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| 19:54 | where you don't remember exactly. It's very interesting phenomenon. Sometimes if you |
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| 19:59 | that a tip of the tongue, at the tip of my tongue, |
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| 20:05 | , just kind of drag it but it's there, it's there. |
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| 20:07 | buzzing someplace in the circuit and the in my brain and just need to |
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| 20:12 | it out, spit it out, know, the tip of the |
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| 20:15 | Oh Then your room was too And you wanna tell something to your |
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| 20:19 | and then it's like, oh, remember, I remember and you walk |
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| 20:22 | , everybody left like, oh, remember. So we all have this |
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| 20:27 | some people will have it basically in chronic kind of basis, not just |
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| 20:32 | and then it's still the least severe aphasia. The most severe hormone aas |
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| 20:36 | global aphasia. There's also severe and damage to the language area. |
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| 20:42 | of the brain patients lose almost all function. Both comprehension expression cannot read |
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| 20:49 | write. There's two things that we're about here that are very important. |
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| 20:55 | of all, it's not one area the brain that's responsible for language. |
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| 21:00 | multiple areas of the brain that are for language. It's many areas of |
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| 21:05 | brain. When we study the visual and the visual system, we'll look |
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| 21:10 | the cortex in the area. V that's where we form the primal sketch |
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| 21:14 | the outside world. But we'll also that there's maybe 20 plus areas that |
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| 21:20 | visual information. Language is a very ability. It's in the left |
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| 21:25 | but you have many different areas broke , Verni area specific interconnections areas in |
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| 21:32 | that are all responsible for all that can do with language here, |
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| 21:37 | talk, sing, write and so and so forth. So it's many |
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| 21:43 | areas that are responsible for. It's just one area. So one function |
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| 21:50 | subserve by many parts of the So just major function as speech F |
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| 21:59 | uh is showing us something else that relating to the second important thing on |
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| 22:07 | previous slide is that there are certain of the brain that are more important |
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| 22:12 | others for everyday life and survival to . Uh who is pictured in this |
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| 22:22 | photograph here and he's holding this metal , this metal bar, he was |
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| 22:31 | for explosions. He was an explosives while in the middle of the 19th |
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| 22:37 | , the railroads are being laid in England. And so what you have |
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| 22:41 | do, what he has to do he has to pack the explosives and |
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| 22:46 | using the bar to pack the explosive a controlled manner and then they blast |
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| 22:52 | the rock so they can lay the . And an accident happens in a |
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| 22:59 | that while he's packing the explosives, go off unexpectedly. And what happens |
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| 23:10 | that metal bar penetrates underneath the bone and exits out through the top of |
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| 23:21 | head, massive massive trauma. He from massive trauma. You agree? |
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| 23:33 | what do you think happens to Does he die? No, because |
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| 23:39 | sitting here holding that, that metal . So he, he doesn't |
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| 23:43 | Ok. But uh you think he a massive traumatic brain injury? So |
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| 23:49 | would think like maybe he cannot maybe he cannot talk, but he |
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| 23:53 | see because it took out all of nerves and from one eye. So |
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| 23:57 | cannot see it was down to But few months later, he comes |
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| 24:02 | to ask for his job back. he walks, he talks, he |
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| 24:07 | and it's a huge area compared to area, which is small and you |
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| 24:12 | longer express yourself. This is a damage to this frontal lobe area, |
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| 24:19 | they don't give him his job back he cannot control his aggression and he |
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| 24:25 | control his executive functions. So he's aggressive and people don't want him |
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| 24:31 | but he can survive and he lives a number of years. And there |
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| 24:35 | a uh kind of a varied accounts what happened to him. Some statements |
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| 24:42 | that he was very aggressive that maybe end up being a murderer. Others |
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| 24:48 | that now it's all made up just exaggerate. But he becomes a very |
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| 24:53 | case in neuroscience. Certain parts of brain are important for important functions and |
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| 24:59 | are also important for important functions. you can still read, write, |
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| 25:03 | everything, sing walk, but you're this executive function. And so the |
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| 25:08 | lobe is responsible for executive function is for the control of aggressions and |
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| 25:14 | And so this is a picture in gauge and this is uh a reconstruction |
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| 25:20 | his skull and, and and uh the museum and the reconstruction of the |
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| 25:26 | here. Now, this is another thing is that he does not die |
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| 25:33 | this trauma. He dies 12 years , in 1960 from status of Optus |
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| 25:42 | . Epilepticus is a type of generalized . So when we study epilepsy, |
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| 25:47 | will study status epilepticus. It's a seizure. When you think of status |
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| 25:54 | , you can think of the classical of what you think is off |
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| 25:59 | person on the floor, tonic clonic foam coming out of the mouth and |
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| 26:07 | cannot stop that seizure. They need to stop that seizure. They need |
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| 26:13 | to stop that seizure. 12 years , the NAZ gauge dies from status |
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| 26:20 | . And this is another thing that know to this day. And this |
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| 26:23 | exemplified when there was wars in most recent wars in Iraq, uh |
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| 26:30 | Afghanistan where 20% of soldiers came back injuries. 20% of those 20% had |
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| 26:38 | brain injuries. 20% of those 20% traumatic brain injuries, developed epilepsy and |
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| 26:48 | is a condition where you have repeated to to have on seizure. It |
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| 26:53 | not enough. It's not called You have to have repeated seizures in |
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| 26:57 | to have a diagnosis of epilepsy. to this day, what we know |
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| 27:02 | if you have an impact, if have traumatic brain injury, that second |
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| 27:07 | , which is epilepsy, it can within days, it can develop within |
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| 27:15 | , months or sometimes years. It's the latent period. Uh It's a |
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| 27:21 | discussion right now, especially with contact . You have seen yourself as you're |
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| 27:27 | up, a lot of discussions you know, kids should not play |
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| 27:32 | , should not play contact sport. should have them play flag sport, |
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| 27:36 | until 12 years old. Before a . Uh, 1520 years ago, |
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| 27:44 | collapsed on the, on the football and they went on the sidelines and |
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| 27:48 | coach would say you, ok, ok, go in there, get |
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| 27:52 | fine, get back there. Now have protocols, everybody. I'm sure |
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| 27:58 | of you saw the player going into cardiac failure last year at the NFL |
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| 28:05 | being knocked out the very serious There's a uh players this season last |
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| 28:12 | , this season that got taken out the games because they had concussion. |
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| 28:18 | you have repeated concussions, you can a condition called chronic traumatic encephalopathy, |
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| 28:24 | known as CTE. And that depends how many concussions you had over what |
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| 28:30 | of time. Now we understand that little better. We also understand that |
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| 28:34 | if the person is ok after two three concussions, two years later, |
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| 28:40 | may develop epilepsy. Two years they may end up with their brains |
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| 28:45 | Alzheimer's brains at 30 years of So we're, we're, we're gaining |
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| 28:51 | in that respect too. But F is probably the most famous patient uh |
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| 28:56 | with a couple of artists in the of neuroscience. Charles Darwin is very |
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| 29:03 | here because if you recall what Charles was doing is Charles Darwin was studying |
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| 29:09 | animals in the Galapagos Islands. And Catalo Galapagos Islands off the coast of |
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| 29:15 | is very interesting. It's very biodiverse it's also the islands that are located |
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| 29:25 | close to one another. We're talking 10 miles, 20 miles apart, |
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| 29:31 | closer, but they have very different on these islands. And so what |
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| 29:38 | does is that he contributes to the of evolution. And what he does |
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| 29:43 | the Galapagos is that he studies he studies birds, he studies fish |
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| 29:53 | he looks at the birds on one and he says, look at the |
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| 29:59 | of the beak on this bird, the same bird, but on this |
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| 30:03 | adjacent to it, that has a ecosystem, the shape of that beak |
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| 30:07 | different. So the external shape of body in turtles, in fish fins |
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| 30:16 | things like that, they were slightly different, but they were in |
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| 30:20 | close proximity to each other and they slightly different because of the environment differences |
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| 30:26 | are so close to each other in islands. And so what he discovers |
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| 30:32 | that the animals that have certain anatomical features that have adopted the best |
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| 30:40 | their environments. They have changed their features to adopt, to survive and |
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| 30:45 | procreate, procreate in that locale and particular island in that particular ecosystem. |
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| 30:57 | that's not only on the outside. also inside our brains. When we |
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| 31:02 | the visual system, this doesn't show much. But you understand that we |
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| 31:06 | very complex visual cortices in monkeys, are our closest relatives. But if |
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| 31:13 | look at animals like rodents, and you look at their somatosensory cortex, |
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| 31:19 | find this very interesting structure that we to as barrel cortex. So these |
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| 31:26 | called the barrels. These are individual because they look like barrel shaped in |
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| 31:30 | cortex. You have a certain stain will expose them. We have these |
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| 31:37 | and this animal, for example, , they whisk around, they whisk |
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| 31:43 | to find the food to sense the . It's an important part. Whisking |
|
| 31:50 | is an important part of mouse's life survival and everything else. So it |
|
| 31:58 | out that these animals have five rows whiskers and have a certain number of |
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| 32:04 | in each row. And if we in their brains, this barrel cortex |
|
| 32:10 | contain the exact number of rows as have the exact number of whiskers on |
|
| 32:14 | whisker pad and the mouse and exact of barrels. Each one barrel corresponding |
|
| 32:21 | processing information from the single whisker. have a question for you. Do |
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| 32:28 | think we have a barrel cortex in ? No, why we don't have |
|
| 32:36 | ? We have a lot of facial , but we typically don't use it |
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| 32:41 | same way as these animals do. other words, we don't hair around |
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| 32:47 | our beards and stuff for food or or better chair to sit on. |
|
| 32:56 | . So we don't have that. what the theory of evolution and |
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| 33:02 | what he was observing was the changes external features in the beaks, the |
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| 33:06 | of the beaks in the fins, shapes of the fins, uh in |
|
| 33:11 | padding, in the turtles and so in their, in their uh |
|
| 33:17 | But you couldn't see on the inside the brain. And the same thing |
|
| 33:21 | basically in order for us to survive for this specs in order to |
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| 33:27 | they have to whisk around. they will have a specific structure in |
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| 33:32 | periphery. They will also have a brain map and a certain anatomy and |
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| 33:38 | that subserve that very important function of around and in monkeys. Again, |
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| 33:44 | don't whisk around and in monkeys, will have a very sophisticated visual cortex |
|
| 33:50 | more sophisticated than in these lower species rodents. So you have the adaptation |
|
| 33:56 | evolution that's happening externally external anatomy, also internal brain structures. So there's |
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| 34:09 | little bit of an issue with the . And the issue is that if |
|
| 34:13 | take the brain and you cut you can see as we already |
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| 34:17 | there's a little bit of gray there's a little bit of white matter |
|
| 34:20 | there. But if you put the under a microscope, and by the |
|
| 34:25 | , we didn't even have really good microscopes until 18 twenties. And really |
|
| 34:32 | the middle of the 19th century, you wanna see small things, what |
|
| 34:37 | you have to do? Yes, should like this. You have to |
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| 34:44 | in on it somehow. Its iphone you can zoom in, right? |
|
| 34:48 | put glasses. If you don't you can see better, you can |
|
| 34:53 | a uh a Lupe or a magnifying , right? To read something or |
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| 34:58 | something better. You have to magnify , magnify, more magnify more. |
|
| 35:04 | if you take the brain and even you cut it in slices, it's |
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| 35:08 | translucent and it looks just like gray and white matter and some translucent uh |
|
| 35:18 | size all the neuron is about 10 in diameter. So we cannot see |
|
| 35:30 | with uh we cannot see micrometers with . You have to basically go maybe |
|
| 35:36 | four X to see micrometers with your and Zoom got a little ones you |
|
| 35:42 | , you could see uh maybe not , maybe you could see 100 micrometers |
|
| 35:49 | . So there is a dispute that because some people when they look at |
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| 35:53 | brain, it's all together, it's like one kind of a they refer |
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| 35:57 | it as sensum and they were proponents the reticular theory and they were saying |
|
| 36:03 | if you look at this brain, looks just like one and the same |
|
| 36:08 | . And what do you do with , well, there's many things that |
|
| 36:13 | can do, but you can say it's all one. And so the |
|
| 36:17 | is made in particular theory that the is comprised of one membrane surrounding many |
|
| 36:24 | nuclei with a cytoplasmic continuity. So all one and it's sort of a |
|
| 36:33 | goes to the argument that that means all the brain is responsible for all |
|
| 36:38 | . So if you have a little in the right cortex, you lose |
|
| 36:41 | little bit of all of the functions not a specific function. We know |
|
| 36:44 | not true because we saw that with , with Brochco area, it's not |
|
| 36:48 | functions, specific brain areas responsible for function. So, but there is |
|
| 36:55 | predominant particular theory, it's all one thing, one membrane cytoplasmic continuity and |
|
| 37:02 | don't know thousands millions or billions of in that one big sensation of |
|
| 37:08 | It's called the reticular theory. Big of the reticular theory is Italia, |
|
| 37:13 | Cilio Gogi uh Camello Golgi. That's really cool. And that's something to |
|
| 37:20 | day that you can do in science you cannot do it in the clinic |
|
| 37:24 | in a hospital. Emilio Golgi uh to photography studio, our photographs taken |
|
| 37:34 | the 18 sixties in the 19th Have you thought of that? How |
|
| 37:44 | you get a photograph? Like how you take the photograph? Everybody seemed |
|
| 37:48 | there was a box, somebody standing front of a box it's covered. |
|
| 37:53 | goes off, right. Where do get the photograph online? You |
|
| 37:59 | huh? Print, make print. . So you have a film right |
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| 38:06 | , you have a film that captured image. You take that to the |
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| 38:11 | room in the lab with the red , you expose and develop that film |
|
| 38:18 | certain light and contrast. You have now on a piece of paper. |
|
| 38:24 | you transfer it to a piece of , you're imprinting it basically on a |
|
| 38:28 | of paper in the film, you're it and then you're coding it. |
|
| 38:33 | if you take the photograph, you scratch everything off, you have a |
|
| 38:37 | on it. So it's a number chemical procedures to snap, snap |
|
| 38:45 | what a difficult time. Uh There's Glassell School of Arts here in the |
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| 38:50 | uh in the well near medical center the museum district. And they have |
|
| 38:55 | of these old uh photograph developing which is really cool because nobody does |
|
| 39:01 | anymore. It's sort of a lost of art and science too. So |
|
| 39:06 | Golgi walks in the studio for photography he says, what are you using |
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| 39:10 | silver nitrates to expose and develop these ? I'll take it to the labs |
|
| 39:16 | I'll put it on the brains and something you can do in science. |
|
| 39:21 | can find something, you can find plant, you can find some urchin |
|
| 39:26 | the bottom of the sea. You squeeze something out of it, you |
|
| 39:30 | measure it and you can say this gonna be PC R. It's all |
|
| 39:35 | PC R. It's crazy things you know, somebody dove for those |
|
| 39:40 | resistant enzymes deep in the bottom of ocean to recover them. People thought |
|
| 39:45 | gonna do what I'm gonna go two down the ocean. We gonna pick |
|
| 39:48 | some bacteria enzymes that are gonna be resistant and salt resistant. Ok? |
|
| 39:55 | me $2 million. Whoa, you're little bit off, you know, |
|
| 39:59 | then they go and find enzymes and heat resistant enzymes are using PC R |
|
| 40:04 | every day in every lab, everywhere the world. Who thought of that |
|
| 40:09 | ? Go down search for stuff, know. So it's the same way |
|
| 40:13 | walked in silver nitrate. I'll put on the brains in the lab. |
|
| 40:18 | course, you have ethics, you regulations, you have things that we |
|
| 40:21 | to abide to. So it's not like whatever we think of we can |
|
| 40:24 | do. But what he does is uh brings a silver nitrate emoji. |
|
| 40:31 | Santiago Ramon Cajal is a student, the most famous neuroscientist and definitely the |
|
| 40:37 | famous in Spain. And as he the silver nitrate stain, it's now |
|
| 40:43 | Goldie stain. That stain gets picked by a very small fraction of |
|
| 40:48 | So only 1 to 3% of all pick up the stain. So that's |
|
| 40:52 | cool. Right. From photography lab to the brain, then you expose |
|
| 40:56 | . You're like, whoa, I stuff I didn't see before. Now |
|
| 41:00 | have the microscopes that can see individual and we have a stain to reveal |
|
| 41:06 | morphology of these individual neurons. So ha sits in fact in front of |
|
| 41:13 | microscope, it's depicted here and he a sample of the brain that's being |
|
| 41:18 | and he's looking through the eye pieces on the right here through a set |
|
| 41:24 | certain mirrors on the right here, a tube that comes out here and |
|
| 41:30 | puts his hand on the tube. now you can see the cell that's |
|
| 41:34 | stained on the slice and he can those cells. So these are not |
|
| 41:40 | , they're cellular or neuronal reconstructions or tracing. Sometimes they're precise, you're |
|
| 41:49 | tracing exactly on top of what you're through this camera lucid, it's called |
|
| 41:56 | lucid. And to this day, have a digitized form of camera lucid |
|
| 42:00 | neuro lucid. So he reconstructs thousands thousands of neurons. He's really |
|
| 42:09 | He puts arrows. He says neurons these dendrites that have cells that have |
|
| 42:14 | , puts arrows, axons, they communicate information to other parts of these |
|
| 42:20 | . He sees that some of the are very complex and they're dendritic |
|
| 42:24 | This is like a huge massive bush some of the others have fairly well |
|
| 42:30 | and really trees and branches that may 1015, 20 branches, but not |
|
| 42:36 | branches like is shown here. He really taking apart things. He uh |
|
| 42:43 | thinks that there are different suburbs of . He thinks that those cells connect |
|
| 42:46 | each other in a certain way. so forward thinking that he thinks that |
|
| 42:51 | connections are plastic. So he thinks there's plasticity in the brain that it's |
|
| 42:55 | just connected and forever connected, that connection can be lost and new connections |
|
| 43:00 | be formed. And he's a proponent neuron doctrine. So Clio Golgi who |
|
| 43:09 | this idea and invented Theda Camello Golgi a proponent of reticular theory and Ramonica |
|
| 43:19 | , his student is a proponent of doctrine. So they argue about this |
|
| 43:28 | together in 1906, they accept the Prize in Physiology or Medicine. It's |
|
| 43:35 | important example. Uh it shows the story illustrates a couple of |
|
| 43:43 | Potentially, it illustrates generational differences. dogma there more rigidity in thinking about |
|
| 43:51 | way. Even if you have a in front of you and the younger |
|
| 43:56 | , your students are saying no, actually different. It's like this and |
|
| 44:00 | using your tools to show, it tells you that it takes time for |
|
| 44:06 | to be accepted. If somebody has discover in their lab and they have |
|
| 44:11 | results and they've confirmed these results, them. What happens with them |
|
| 44:17 | It's tough because you have to publish and to publish it, it has |
|
| 44:21 | go through peer review. And if really novel, if it's really |
|
| 44:26 | if it's something that is coming out left field or right field, whatever |
|
| 44:32 | will be skeptical about it, they put the brakes on and say, |
|
| 44:35 | don't really believe this was on. has seen this before. Therefore, |
|
| 44:40 | not really possible. Right. That's of like if you've seen this |
|
| 44:44 | it's like, yeah, it's just different variation. You never seen |
|
| 44:47 | They like is that really possible? more work, do more work, |
|
| 44:51 | more work. So it can take years to publish some really great result |
|
| 44:59 | the journal and defend it in front your peers. So there is a |
|
| 45:03 | difference, there is a kind of established understanding of the field difference. |
|
| 45:11 | a difference, you know, older is afraid of A I younger generation |
|
| 45:15 | on A I nonstop uh all of differences. The other thing is you |
|
| 45:21 | work with your mentor, your mentor going to think about things in a |
|
| 45:25 | way. His own scientific interpretation, can have a different interpretation. You |
|
| 45:29 | still be winners together, they still the Nobel Prize. But also doesn't |
|
| 45:35 | have to agree if you're seeing something don't have to follow, you have |
|
| 45:39 | establish your own opinion, even if may be in uh in different from |
|
| 45:45 | mentors opinion. Charles Sherrington. Shown . He received Nobel Prize in Physiology |
|
| 45:51 | Madison in 1932 he coins the storm synapse or synapse. He starts describing |
|
| 45:57 | happens in the synapse. Uh At time, we can visualize neurons. |
|
| 46:02 | do not understand. Although uh Luigi saw nerves can produce action potentials. |
|
| 46:08 | do not know if these individual discrete , neurons can produce action potentials on |
|
| 46:13 | own. We don't have the technology record action potentials for another 50 years |
|
| 46:18 | so. And we also cannot visualize synopsis. So that's where part of |
|
| 46:24 | dispute comes from. So, although can visualize the morphology of these cells |
|
| 46:29 | , we do not see that space between neurons. And that's where some |
|
| 46:34 | the dogmatism and rightfully so comes through you're not seeing it until I see |
|
| 46:39 | . I'm not believing it right when see it, I'll believe it. |
|
| 46:44 | for a while, we don't see synopsis until the 20th century. But |
|
| 46:49 | the meantime, there's also development of important stain called missile stain. And |
|
| 46:54 | difference is between missile stain and the stain is that missile stain un like |
|
| 46:59 | stain. Missile stain gets picked up all of neurons of all of Glia |
|
| 47:05 | stain. Only a fraction of there's millions of neurons in this |
|
| 47:10 | but only a fraction of them will up that stain. And that's one |
|
| 47:14 | the advantages because if all neurons picked the stain, there will be overlap |
|
| 47:20 | their processes and sous and you wouldn't be able to, it was luck |
|
| 47:25 | that they found the stain and that stain was taken up only by a |
|
| 47:28 | of cells. Uh What Nissel stain good for? This is really |
|
| 47:37 | Go is really good for morphology. is not good for morphology because Nile |
|
| 47:43 | are name pari bosoms which are located selma around nucleus. So it stains |
|
| 47:49 | exposes nuclei. It's very poor. showing the processes such as dendrites or |
|
| 47:58 | . But what it's really good at because all of the cells pick up |
|
| 48:02 | state. What it's really good at showing where all of the cells are |
|
| 48:07 | , how densely they're packed. Maybe are layers 123456. This is lio |
|
| 48:13 | of the thalamus will be a part your dialogue. When we study the |
|
| 48:17 | system, this is the hippocampus, will start being a part of your |
|
| 48:22 | next lecture. So you can see dark bands. That means the densities |
|
| 48:27 | the cells are very uh the cells very dense in this area. And |
|
| 48:31 | you have lesser densities of the And you can start describing the structure |
|
| 48:38 | on the what we call cytoarchitecture or architectonic methods. And doctor Cabin and |
|
| 48:46 | uses Nel stains slices head brain after after brain after brain. And he |
|
| 48:56 | different functional areas he describes this as different functional areas determined by a specific |
|
| 49:04 | density of packing location, orientation of south. And then another area based |
|
| 49:10 | another density of orientation of the Then he has all of these broad |
|
| 49:18 | . OK. So this is now part of the 20th century. So |
|
| 49:25 | went from the end of the 19th looking at the surface of the skull |
|
| 49:33 | trying to say, oh, we read the functionality by looking at the |
|
| 49:37 | of the skull, which was wrong the way to having broad mass |
|
| 49:44 | And really trying to understand the which means function, function and structure |
|
| 49:49 | both intertwined and inseparable, interdependent. no structure, there's no function. |
|
| 49:58 | the structure changes, the function function can influence the structure. If |
|
| 50:03 | no function structure can go away the neurons, it's it's a plastic |
|
| 50:07 | , valuable process. Now we have of these different areas of the |
|
| 50:13 | Thanks to Doctor Brodman. And to day, if somebody told me area |
|
| 50:17 | , it's V one occipital lobe. for neuroscientists, we still know these |
|
| 50:22 | pretty well based on the numbering that created. And it's gotten refined and |
|
| 50:28 | uh detailed since that time. So can we see, when can we |
|
| 50:34 | synopsis? What do we need to to see? Synopsis? Synopsis are |
|
| 50:43 | the two cells will connect to each ? This is CW and this is |
|
| 50:49 | two and this distance it's referred to cleft. It's the physical distance between |
|
| 51:00 | two neurons is about 20 nanometers in . And the best light microscopes can |
|
| 51:11 | 0.1 micrometers. How many nanometers 0.1 mi micrometers. 100 one micrometer |
|
| 51:26 | be 1000 nanometers. So 0.1 micrometer 100 nanometers right? So 100 |
|
| 51:42 | What is the pollens? Just kidding nanometers who invented this non metric system |
|
| 51:50 | , uh 100 nanometer but the synapse 20 nanometers. Can you see with |
|
| 51:58 | live microscope? No. So only electron microscope, you can see |
|
| 52:06 | And so those come online in the century, middle of the 20th century |
|
| 52:11 | it's very different from what you're used seeing as a light microscope. You |
|
| 52:16 | carry with your hands sometimes in the and look at things depending on |
|
| 52:20 | And you walk in, there's a a separate rig and room for electron |
|
| 52:26 | and a lot of ventilation and heat out of the machine. So it's |
|
| 52:31 | very different setup but it gives us resolution. So only with electron |
|
| 52:35 | we were able to see the synapsis that the discrete units that have synaptic |
|
| 52:42 | thy though. So Ramon Cajal missed by about 4050 years or so to |
|
| 52:48 | visualize and see the synopsis of the . Now, the reason why these |
|
| 52:57 | are important is because without these we cannot tell what the brain is |
|
| 53:02 | up of. We can tell the matter and the gray matter only with |
|
| 53:06 | stains. You'll see later slide that the gain in the brain is mainly |
|
| 53:12 | the stain like the rain in Spain mainly in the plain. And that's |
|
| 53:20 | we need the stain to reveal the , the morphology of the cells, |
|
| 53:26 | of the networks, the structure of networks using cy tectonic methods. So |
|
| 53:33 | have to stain the tissue, you to apply silver nitrate, you have |
|
| 53:38 | apply blue tour and stain that's blue the tissue. And then you have |
|
| 53:43 | look at what has picked up the . A number of fraction of |
|
| 53:47 | all of neurons can I see morphology just the cells. And there's since |
|
| 53:53 | , there's hundreds of different stains that be used for staining neurons, different |
|
| 54:00 | of neurons, different molecules in but stains are very important. And |
|
| 54:07 | in the middle of the 20th when the technology was developed to do |
|
| 54:15 | recordings, electrophysiological studies from single which really came about in the 19 |
|
| 54:21 | , 19 forties with very large And later over the end of the |
|
| 54:26 | century, we were able to visualize neurons. So this set up |
|
| 54:32 | what it shows is that we have brain sliced preparation. It's placed right |
|
| 54:38 | is green light. OK. This where a brain slice is sitting and |
|
| 54:44 | alive. It's being super fused with cerebrospinal fluid, it's given oxygen all |
|
| 54:51 | nutrients. So the slice things, still a part of the brain answered |
|
| 54:56 | brain slide, sitting here, a uh mid brain slice is sitting here |
|
| 55:02 | then we have the light. So you look into this eye pieces, |
|
| 55:06 | wouldn't be able to see individual So we send that light, the |
|
| 55:11 | penetrates through the slice, it goes the objectives and through the set of |
|
| 55:17 | , it gets sent back, there's mirror that reflects that light to the |
|
| 55:22 | and it goes into the infrared camera that infrared camera is connected to the |
|
| 55:30 | . And in very short terms, microscopy or infrared imaging and allows to |
|
| 55:37 | individual neurons without any stain. It us to visualize neurons about 50 to |
|
| 55:44 | micrometers from the surface. So we visualize them very deep but the superficial |
|
| 55:49 | we can visualize very well. And we have these micro electrodes, the |
|
| 55:56 | of the tip of this microelectrode is about one micrometer. And now we |
|
| 56:02 | target individual neurons with these micro And so there's no stain here. |
|
| 56:10 | , there's infrared camera and infrared imaging , without the stain that allows us |
|
| 56:15 | visualize these neurons so that we can more functional studies, electrophysiological studies on |
|
| 56:22 | neurons. This was one of the I added uh here at the University |
|
| 56:27 | Houston uh about four years ago, traveling to University of uh North Texas |
|
| 56:36 | my former phd student is now a at UN T and he, we |
|
| 56:42 | this microscope for specific uh studies. these studies are, are very |
|
| 56:50 | they're difficult physically. So to do kind of patch recordings, as |
|
| 56:56 | do we spend 8 to 10 hours day and about two hours in preparation |
|
| 57:02 | cleaning and about 6 to 8 hours just immersed in the dark room with |
|
| 57:07 | microscope doing recordings. It's very difficult it's, you know, you have |
|
| 57:11 | have stamina. So he's still uh years younger than me and he's on |
|
| 57:18 | right now as a new faculty. uh we're gonna do a collaborative study |
|
| 57:23 | this microscope was just built for specific who later learned uh voltage sensitive dye |
|
| 57:28 | in this course. So I'm very actually because they took it apart for |
|
| 57:32 | while and now we're gonna do something in a completely uh different location. |
|
| 57:38 | So doctor Fang Gu at UN T gonna lead these studies. Now take |
|
| 57:46 | for me and I'll fall back in , in the advisory uh in the |
|
| 57:52 | role. OK. So using these microscopes and in particular, the electron |
|
| 58:00 | , we now can visualize individual And so this is an electron microscope |
|
| 58:07 | that shows here dem I wish it Den Denver, but it's dendrite. |
|
| 58:13 | PSD is postsynaptic density. This is dendritic spine, postsynaptic densities is where |
|
| 58:21 | receptors are going to be located in densities. So, postsynaptic densities, |
|
| 58:27 | it are these round uh uh more red processes and these red processes contain |
|
| 58:34 | found vesicle syndrome. So these are axons and these are the neurotransmitter vesicles |
|
| 58:40 | will contain neurotransmitters inside of them. those neurotransmitter vesicles are going to fuse |
|
| 58:46 | the presynaptic plasma membrane cause the release neurotransmitter, which is going to travel |
|
| 58:52 | that 20 nanometer of synoptic left And that is going to bind the |
|
| 58:59 | receptors and postsynaptic densities of these protrusions are referred to as dendritic spines. |
|
| 59:06 | dendritic spines are found on dendrites of and dendritic spines is where most of |
|
| 59:13 | synapses are formed. They're really They're about one micrometer in size. |
|
| 59:20 | come at least in three different signature , stubby, thin and muscle shaped |
|
| 59:31 | . And it has a spine smooth endoplasmic reticulum, some polyribosome complexes |
|
| 59:40 | the spin that make these dendritic spines biochemical independent units from the rest of |
|
| 59:45 | SOMA. Because by having poly ribosomes smooth uh uh and spina paras is |
|
| 59:54 | able to do some posttranslational notifications right at the level of the spine transcription |
|
| 60:02 | , post translation. So we now that it's very important that during early |
|
| 60:09 | , we form a certain number of density distribution along the dendrite shapes of |
|
| 60:14 | spines, the most malleable elements, spines can grow in size and become |
|
| 60:22 | . They can decrease in size and weaker. When the spines become stronger |
|
| 60:27 | larger. The communication between the two strengthens. When the spines become smaller |
|
| 60:32 | size, there is less receptors in spines, the communication between the cells |
|
| 60:38 | weaker. If there is not enough , those spines will be driven |
|
| 60:44 | It's called pruning of the spines. will be lost. If there is |
|
| 60:49 | communication to certain parts of cells with , new spines will form. So |
|
| 60:55 | really plastic elements here. That's where connections happen. Most of the connections |
|
| 61:02 | . All of that information travels down dendrite into the selma where all of |
|
| 61:07 | gets processed and integrated. Yes. Can you repeat what happens if the |
|
| 61:12 | grow bigger and smaller again, just clear. So if the spines become |
|
| 61:18 | in size, they become stronger, communication between the cells becomes stronger. |
|
| 61:25 | this is an example is if you a large dendritic spine, you can |
|
| 61:29 | 123 pos synaptic densities. And there's be a very strong communication between this |
|
| 61:37 | and possy cell. That means that dendritic spine is gonna be responding really |
|
| 61:43 | robustly. And then if it becomes , it may shrink to really small |
|
| 61:49 | optic dens. And it doesn't matter strong the inputs are coming in the |
|
| 61:53 | from it is gonna be weakened. gonna be uh smaller response possy optically |
|
| 62:03 | right. So what do we know modern day neuroscience as we're nearing the |
|
| 62:08 | of this lecture, we know a we can study single molecules, we |
|
| 62:13 | study single dendritic spines, we can single cells, we can look at |
|
| 62:17 | these cells are interconnected to each A lot of this work is done |
|
| 62:21 | the experimental neuroscience level. We can it in vitro, we can do |
|
| 62:26 | in vivo. Yes, we can cells using three photon imaging deep inside |
|
| 62:31 | tissue. Now in vivo, all these things that we do in experimental |
|
| 62:39 | setting is not really applicable in the setting to the same extent of |
|
| 62:47 | It's very different methodology in the clinical . On the clinical level, we |
|
| 62:53 | that we can actually image activity of and neural networks not invasively. So |
|
| 62:58 | can put these coils f MRI coils poor on the mission tomography coils, |
|
| 63:06 | don't have to open the skull, don't have to put a patient |
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| 63:10 | It's not an easy procedure to go pet scan or F MRI. And |
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| 63:14 | Children and older adults have very difficult going through the procedure. Claustrophobia is |
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| 63:20 | issue being still for a long Children don't understand why they have to |
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| 63:25 | stuff. Uh sometimes patients when they through these scans, they may get |
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| 63:30 | asleep. But for the most it's not a surgery, it's a |
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| 63:35 | , it's like a more just more and more sophisticated uh X ray |
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| 63:40 | Longer. In the case of pet , you will have a radioactively labeled |
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| 63:45 | injected inside of you. So you radioactive, radioactive literal so that it |
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| 63:53 | picked up by, by the by coils. But what these techniques show |
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| 63:58 | are noninvasive clinical imaging techniques and what show us is you can give different |
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| 64:04 | to individuals as they're sitting in these . And you can ask them to |
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| 64:08 | at the words, to listen to words, to speak the words or |
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| 64:14 | of the words. And these are we call brain maps, you can |
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| 64:18 | them heat maps wherever you see red the active neural circuits. And we |
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| 64:23 | see that the activity of these neural varies very much even relating to the |
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| 64:29 | task of language of reading reception and the language and also thinking about the |
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| 64:36 | . What are we missing on a level? Well, we missed that |
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| 64:41 | that we have in the lab. , we do not have through these |
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| 64:46 | techniques, we do not have a of a single neuron, a single |
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| 64:52 | by far. So we're looking at average of activity from neuronal networks from |
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| 64:58 | dimensional networks of neurons that correspond to single pixel, single voxel uh of |
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| 65:07 | image. OK. The future of clinical noninvasive neuroscience is having the ability |
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| 65:16 | do this test noninvasively. So with MRI, you don't have a radioactively |
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| 65:22 | injection like you do with pet scan being able to do this so that |
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| 65:27 | can see the overall activity of the and zoom into individual modes. Is |
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| 65:36 | possible? Who was saying a I years ago, whose vocabulary was it |
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| 65:45 | ? It wasn't in mind. Maybe read a couple of articles that was |
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| 65:49 | it. Something is going on Something is brewing. So, is |
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| 65:53 | possible? Yes. And you are ones that are going to do |
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| 65:58 | You're gonna learn all the stuff in and other subject matters. You get |
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| 66:03 | smart, have great ideas. You're say, what is this? I |
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| 66:08 | see single neuron. Uh I'm gonna A I in image analysis and I'm |
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| 66:14 | derive a network of neurons as a of one single pixel appear in a |
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| 66:20 | . It is possible. I think gonna move ahead quite far with the |
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| 66:26 | of A I, with the help other technologies and features that we |
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| 66:31 | We're gonna move quite far ahead in the brain better, better, |
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| 66:35 | better, better, less invasively and greater resolution and having the ability to |
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| 66:41 | out and see the gross anatomical changes activity and zoom in and see individual |
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| 66:47 | being active within those networks. All . So I'm gonna end here. |
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| 66:55 | when we come back next lecture, briefly going to discuss the role of |
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| 67:01 | and virtual reality and some of the paths that neuroscience can lead you |
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| 67:08 | You have a great rest of the . I'll see you here on |
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