| 00:00 | Yeah. Uh Yeah. On. . Yeah, testing testing, but |
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| 00:32 | fine. Ok, folks, Uh ok. So um everything's |
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| 00:48 | you can see. Ok, so no shenanigans like what happened on um |
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| 00:56 | . So they've actually covered the the unit. It's a very good |
|
| 01:00 | . My big foot won't touch it . Um ok. So uh so |
|
| 01:10 | gonna pick up where we left off Tuesday, which is right at the |
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| 01:15 | is beginning to talk about those mechanisms horizon transfer. Um Let's see. |
|
| 01:24 | before we do that, so let's , we got the weekly quiz coming |
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| 01:29 | . Um And oh, the scheduler tomorrow. So make a note of |
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| 01:36 | . Uh next week we wrap up unit the following week. Um Unit |
|
| 01:44 | , the last unit. Ok. um what else I think? Uh |
|
| 01:50 | think there was smart work. Do ? I didn't make a note of |
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| 01:53 | but um be aware of that. anything else um anybody uh doing Halloween |
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| 02:03 | year made dressing up my wife and are defending champs two years in a |
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| 02:09 | or uh we go to Red Lion on the, you're too young. |
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| 02:13 | go to bars. I know. , uh, uh, Red Lion |
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| 02:17 | on, uh, anybody familiar with Lion Pub, Westheimer and not |
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| 02:22 | uh, Shepherd Shepherd and, uh, gray kind of what's |
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| 02:28 | Ok. I'll bring, I'll bring on, um, next week. |
|
| 02:34 | , the, the insane thing is price is $1000 and, but, |
|
| 02:40 | you have to spend that red of course. But that's, that's |
|
| 02:43 | . So that lasts maybe about two . It lasts about six months. |
|
| 02:47 | think so. But two years in row. So, and this, |
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| 02:51 | theme this year is hottest Ken and . OK. So if we win |
|
| 02:59 | , it's because of my wife, because of me. So, um |
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| 03:03 | but anyway, I got the costume night accessories. So we'll see. |
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| 03:09 | you can laugh about it next All right. All right. |
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| 03:15 | all right, let's let me get head head in the game here. |
|
| 03:18 | . So context, right? So looking at mechanisms of how, you |
|
| 03:27 | , basically prokaryotes can gather um genetic . OK. So remember evolution |
|
| 03:36 | right? Variation in populations is in part, what it's all about. |
|
| 03:45 | . Um And bacteria, IKEA prokaryotes as we know, multiplied through binary |
|
| 03:55 | . OK? And as I last time you might think, |
|
| 03:59 | xerox machine, right? They're all of each other and of course, |
|
| 04:03 | not right, because you have through transfer gene transfer parent child, just |
|
| 04:08 | it that way, parent to two cells that um patches of genes through |
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| 04:15 | changes can occur spontaneous mutation during during of DNA can introduce changes. Um |
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| 04:24 | no sexual reproduction, of course, there's no male and female right among |
|
| 04:31 | . But the other way they can genetic variation is through horizontal gene |
|
| 04:35 | right? Mating. You know, , let's say, acquiring DNA from |
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| 04:43 | in the population, whether same species maybe slightly different species in some |
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| 04:49 | maybe not so closely related. So um so I forgot my |
|
| 04:58 | So um so the four mechanisms, ? Transformation, conjugation, transduction transposition |
|
| 05:05 | go through those today. OK. main thing about those is, you |
|
| 05:10 | , if you write those four things , right? If you, if |
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| 05:14 | the end of this unit, you you're studying and you go OK. |
|
| 05:18 | I really know this stuff? Just these four terms down and come up |
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| 05:23 | what you think? Each means? one has kind of its characteristic |
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| 05:27 | OK, transduction virus, right? conjugation, cell cell contact, |
|
| 05:36 | Transformation, probably the easiest one to just uptake of DNA from the |
|
| 05:40 | That's it. OK. Um Transposition that's a little different. So if |
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| 05:46 | had to rank these four, I'd the most common modes of how horizontal |
|
| 05:52 | transfer occurs through the top three transformation transduction, right? But certainly there |
|
| 05:59 | we're aware of certain antibiotic resistances that through transposition. Um in terms |
|
| 06:06 | you know, most frequently uh acquired through the top three mechanism. But |
|
| 06:12 | and so we went through this last . So this is just to reiterate |
|
| 06:16 | , you know, that not all colors are the same, right? |
|
| 06:19 | though they divide by binary fission, variation. Um The just think of |
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| 06:25 | , the blue blob is the, the gene pool. Ok. All |
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| 06:29 | genes we know of, of E are only it like for any living |
|
| 06:34 | . Each member in the population only a fraction of all the genes, |
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| 06:37 | one has all of them. And so that's your average E |
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| 06:42 | And then within that uh among all cash will be in that set of |
|
| 06:49 | , roughly half are core genes. are your basic data have functions or |
|
| 06:54 | won't live, right? Protein things protein synthesis and reputation, et |
|
| 06:59 | OK. Um And so of course , um uh you call like strains |
|
| 07:06 | variations between them. You know, looked at 0157 is a pathogen, |
|
| 07:10 | ? So it's gonna have a lot virulence genes associated with it that K |
|
| 07:14 | 1, which is basically a benign strain. OK. So uh in |
|
| 07:19 | end, most pro most the genomes pro cars code stuff, right? |
|
| 07:25 | mostly. But remember um uh genes also code for RNAs and that's the |
|
| 07:32 | product. So your Trnas bosom of , uh that's the end product, |
|
| 07:37 | ? But obviously most of the genes for proteins, but you do have |
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| 07:41 | that don't. And then this, good chunk, 1/5 of the genome |
|
| 07:47 | from other sources, right? Through gene transfer. OK. So I |
|
| 07:52 | that catches, catches, catches us . OK. Uh So core and |
|
| 07:58 | . So again, the core gene , those are the genes involved in |
|
| 08:01 | called informational uh functions. DNA Um Things related to cell division, |
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| 08:09 | synthesis, et cetera. OK. gene pool is basically anything that's not |
|
| 08:13 | . OK. So um all any questions. So kind of a |
|
| 08:19 | minute recap of last time. Uh All right. So this is |
|
| 08:23 | than just this very, a brief of these four. And then we'll |
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| 08:28 | into each one in a little more , the transformation again, maybe the |
|
| 08:32 | easiest to, to comprehend. All , simply uptake of DNA from the |
|
| 08:37 | . OK. Conjugation, cell cell . Uh So we do specify |
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| 08:43 | recipient, I mean, it's not , female, not the same thing |
|
| 08:46 | that, but we do, we call uh 11, the one providing |
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| 08:51 | DNA to donor when accepting the recipient . That's kind of an easy |
|
| 08:55 | It's a virus that's involved here. the go between, OK. The |
|
| 09:00 | for the transfer from one cell to . OK. Um And then uh |
|
| 09:06 | , OK. So the transposon uh this is a mechanism that's found across |
|
| 09:14 | life forms is transposition. Uh The certainly prevalent in us. OK. |
|
| 09:22 | I, and for the most part ons are these genetic DNA elements that |
|
| 09:26 | of, for the most part stay the cell that they're in, they |
|
| 09:31 | of jump around the chromosomes. Here and there. OK. Uh |
|
| 09:36 | , you know, in terms of that can do this, um the |
|
| 09:42 | horn history. Um OK. Um um uh that's, you know, |
|
| 09:52 | , there are occasions when that transposon jump, it will basically hit your |
|
| 09:57 | , will hit your ride. And that's how it gets out of the |
|
| 10:01 | . It's in into another cell And it comprises elements of conjugation as |
|
| 10:07 | . OK. So we'll see that the end today. OK. So |
|
| 10:12 | one thing we need to do first we go into all these mechanisms is |
|
| 10:20 | OK. Two things. First is example of we talk about what are |
|
| 10:24 | genomic islands. OK. So basically are areas in the genome, |
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| 10:30 | The chromosome, right, that we were inherited through horizontal gene transfer. |
|
| 10:37 | . And so genes that are of type are basically gonna be grouped according |
|
| 10:44 | function, right? You can get resistance, what they call the antibiotic |
|
| 10:48 | genes. You know, they'll be a, a segment that's transferred. |
|
| 10:54 | ? Or genes relating to uh virulence maybe it's a FMRI and a capsule |
|
| 10:58 | something, you typically they're past past inherited together. So, so they |
|
| 11:04 | these areas in the chromosome containing these types of, of uh genes |
|
| 11:13 | OK. And so here a metabolic would be something that would contain a |
|
| 11:18 | , right? So, knowing how bacterial genes are in OPERON, |
|
| 11:22 | So this could contain an operon in . We don't have multiple genes with |
|
| 11:28 | , right? So it could be whole pathway, right? Very common |
|
| 11:31 | something like uh we talk about aromatic acid metabolism way back, right? |
|
| 11:37 | that's, that's a set of genes are often found as an island that |
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| 11:41 | passed through conjugation, et cetera. a resistance island that's antibiotic resistance, |
|
| 11:48 | symbiosis, we talked about um nitrogen way back, right? And so |
|
| 11:55 | can be also something that's heritable uh fixation, right? That property of |
|
| 12:01 | fixation is found across all different types bacteria from, from enteric uh |
|
| 12:09 | to like Streptomyces. Streptomyces is a dwelling bacterium known to produce lots of |
|
| 12:16 | right? Way different from an In cyanobacteria. The photosynthetic type has |
|
| 12:21 | property too. So those that gives a clue that this must be something |
|
| 12:26 | through horizontal gene transfer, not through gene transfer. OK. So um |
|
| 12:35 | OK. Any questions about that? . So um OK. So one |
|
| 12:43 | you're gonna see in, in all mechanisms, transformation, abduction, |
|
| 12:50 | uh transformation. I think that's why left out um all four of those |
|
| 12:56 | recombination. Recombination is a feature at point in all of those. |
|
| 13:04 | And so, so you, so still acquires DNA, right? So |
|
| 13:08 | can be as a fragment, which very likely if it's um you |
|
| 13:13 | in the environment, you know, , it's likely that DNA, of |
|
| 13:16 | , the transformation is DNA in the is not gonna exist as a intact |
|
| 13:22 | , right? Bacteria dies and it's that is in out in the |
|
| 13:26 | you know, the forces around you know the environment, you |
|
| 13:30 | che the chemistry is going on uh exposure to the environment. It's just |
|
| 13:36 | fragment it, it's not gonna stay , right? It's gonna break up |
|
| 13:39 | fragments are generally what are, what taken in, right? Uh A |
|
| 13:43 | whole plasmid inheritance of that is generally be through another cell giving it to |
|
| 13:50 | . OK? It's not, it's gonna be common to find an intact |
|
| 13:56 | DNA that hasn't kind of broken down . OK. So uh so the |
|
| 14:02 | here is inheriting either one of these ? Uh the cell could use it |
|
| 14:08 | food. OK? You can eat , you do. OK. Um |
|
| 14:15 | uh but more likely that the the fragment, the single, the single |
|
| 14:23 | fragment or or double stranded. But , the fragment that's linear is one |
|
| 14:28 | is most likely to be susceptible to broken down. OK? Because what |
|
| 14:34 | that look like to the bacterial But do we talk about previously? |
|
| 14:43 | , what might this look like to cell? An incoming DNA to the |
|
| 14:48 | could resemble a, begins with a A P page. Ok. Page |
|
| 14:56 | . It could resemble that. And puts it on alert and say, |
|
| 14:59 | , let's get rid of that. really in any cell type, you |
|
| 15:03 | a procreate a DNA fragment that just the cells, they don't last |
|
| 15:10 | they get chopped up. OK? so it's typically seen as a threat |
|
| 15:16 | some sort. And so, um if that's the case, it gets |
|
| 15:22 | up and it can of course, used for energy or recycled, recycled |
|
| 15:26 | , right? But if recombination right, that will, that's what |
|
| 15:31 | ensure that that can be a permanent of its genome. OK? Otherwise |
|
| 15:37 | just gonna go be crunched up. ? So it's typically essential if it's |
|
| 15:42 | single fragment coming in uh rather a linear fragment coming in that it |
|
| 15:48 | recombine or it's gonna go away. . Of course, it recombines then |
|
| 15:54 | could uh gain, you know, can express whatever genes are on |
|
| 15:58 | It can be, it can OK? Um It could then provide |
|
| 16:03 | new gene for it. Maybe it um uh providing a good copy of |
|
| 16:10 | gene um that um oh you Hold on. OK. There we |
|
| 16:20 | . Um It could uh it maybe a defective gene. And then this |
|
| 16:24 | is a, is a good copy that gene and it kind of fixes |
|
| 16:27 | bad function. Now, so that happen to repair repair function. Um |
|
| 16:34 | , the coexisting, right? The plants with DNA is one that can |
|
| 16:41 | by not recombining, it can stay there. So because bacterial cells are |
|
| 16:45 | of used to having something, something that like a plans, right? |
|
| 16:48 | these aren't, these wouldn't be susceptible immediate degradation uh as something like this |
|
| 16:56 | would OK? Because they do co what coexistence cells, right? |
|
| 17:00 | um but we'll, we'll also learn these can also recombine, right? |
|
| 17:06 | not only the fragment but so can plastic, we'll, we'll see an |
|
| 17:11 | of that. Um The uh So we, the only thing I'm |
|
| 17:16 | say about recombination, OK. I rec A because that is the big |
|
| 17:21 | but there are, of course, other enzymes involved in this process of |
|
| 17:26 | . But this is the, the major one, the one that kind |
|
| 17:30 | starts the process. OK. And it does is so recombination is all |
|
| 17:36 | on having some level of similarity homology the two. OK. And that's |
|
| 17:43 | basic A TGC base pair. So it has to be a, |
|
| 17:47 | AAA chunk of that in, in fragment that you can line up |
|
| 17:52 | with the chromosome. OK. And that's kind of what the job of |
|
| 17:56 | A is OK. So it kind finds whether it's homology. OK. |
|
| 18:04 | then other components come in to, kind of based on uh uh repair |
|
| 18:10 | that occurs that occur on you. If you have um uh parts of |
|
| 18:16 | , the, the homologous parts line and, and combine with each |
|
| 18:21 | but then these other proteins come in kind of chew out, chew up |
|
| 18:25 | parts that aren't homologous in between and them with the proper nucleotides. |
|
| 18:31 | That's kind of how this happens But the end result is this donor |
|
| 18:36 | we call it becomes part of that . OK. Oops. Um |
|
| 18:43 | but that's again, it's an essential . We're gonna see it in transformation |
|
| 18:48 | conjugation in uh transduction and in transposition recombination. OK. Um Any questions |
|
| 18:59 | that? Yeah. Mhm OK. let's look at this question. So |
|
| 19:06 | gonna start with transformation. So it's , conjugation transduction transposition in that |
|
| 19:12 | OK. So again, with, know, it really with these 44 |
|
| 19:18 | is about what identifies each one. are the 123 features of each |
|
| 19:43 | All right. Mhm For you. . Counting down from 76. |
|
| 20:16 | it's definitely wait, I see that . Yeah, it's, it's E |
|
| 20:23 | . Um Yeah. Cell cell contact sex pylos A plasmid AC and D |
|
| 20:31 | all fit with uh conjugation B Um transpose a transposition. OK. |
|
| 20:41 | um but certainly DNA fragments in the . That's what, that's what it |
|
| 20:44 | . That's what transformation is uptaking those . So, um uh so in |
|
| 20:52 | at mechanisms of this, this is you recall from intro bio, um |
|
| 20:59 | experiments that led up to discovering that was a molecule of heredity, anybody |
|
| 21:05 | that? OK. Uh One of first ones was the Griffith experiment with |
|
| 21:12 | uh streptococcus strain that causes pneumonia and variant which causes, which is |
|
| 21:19 | It's not virulent. OK. Because did experiments and he showed that um |
|
| 21:24 | passed from or he didn't know the but they call it transforming principle passed |
|
| 21:30 | the streptococcal virulent strain to the non strain and turned that one into a |
|
| 21:35 | strain. OK. And so that , that's, that's essentially transformation. |
|
| 21:41 | . And so the the uh vent from a heat killed to, to |
|
| 21:47 | them, lice them. And so DNA gets out of them and then |
|
| 21:50 | non vent strains pick it up and express the the the uh vance genes |
|
| 21:56 | is a capsule basically for, for ammonia. So anyway, so that's |
|
| 22:01 | of uh where this was first So, um so in terms of |
|
| 22:05 | , right, gram positive, gram number one, not all bacteria are |
|
| 22:10 | can do this. OK. Um so transformation is also a, a |
|
| 22:18 | tool in the recombination gene cloning right? You took intro bio, |
|
| 22:26 | think you did experiment transformation in the . Um And uh what most people |
|
| 22:33 | for, for, for the lab . And the reason they do it |
|
| 22:37 | to use the cell to make copies their DNA A plants, particularly in |
|
| 22:44 | DNA work. You make plasmids that your gene of interest and you shove |
|
| 22:49 | into a cell and you do that you want the cell to make copies |
|
| 22:53 | it. OK. And so most most things in in electrobiology, uh |
|
| 23:02 | not as much anymore, but it's coli seems to be the the cell |
|
| 23:06 | , for everything. So they use coli to transform. They take your |
|
| 23:10 | plants if they constructed and shove it the E coli um to make E |
|
| 23:14 | make more of it, right? E coli is not naturally transformable. |
|
| 23:19 | ? So you have to force it take up DNA. So if you |
|
| 23:23 | what you did, you have it uh I think you heat shock it |
|
| 23:28 | like 42 degrees and then put on ice and then that kind of these |
|
| 23:33 | extreme temperature kind of make pores in cell initially and then DNA comes in |
|
| 23:39 | then it closes up when you put on ice, right? So um |
|
| 23:44 | cells don't take it up. But you have so many bacterial cells in |
|
| 23:47 | , even just a small portion is to take it up and you go |
|
| 23:51 | there. But that's what we call artificial transformation, right? Completely |
|
| 23:57 | We're forcing the cells to do it chemical means. There's other ways, |
|
| 24:01 | modern ways are giving it a shock operation. Uh But natural transformation. |
|
| 24:07 | . That's what these two mechanisms here . OK. So gram positives, |
|
| 24:12 | you compare the 2 g positives is complicated. There's more stuff involved. |
|
| 24:19 | . The uh what they call transformer , some books call it trans |
|
| 24:24 | OK? That's the complex that takes the DNA. OK. But it's |
|
| 24:30 | it's a intensive process in terms of all this these components together and it's |
|
| 24:39 | it requires lots of energy, multiple . And so if that function is |
|
| 24:46 | to transform, it's it's under this here, quorum sensing, we saw |
|
| 24:51 | before in biofilm formation. OK. any kind of cell where where cell |
|
| 25:01 | , a certain cell density needs to reached to start the process. That's |
|
| 25:05 | quorum sensing process. OK? Like saw about film formation, OK. |
|
| 25:12 | um the um so competence, you that word, you see the word |
|
| 25:21 | , you automatically think, oh, must be talking about transformation, |
|
| 25:25 | We only use that term in the of transformation, right? So they |
|
| 25:29 | it competent means is able to take . So the example of E coli |
|
| 25:33 | which can't be transformed, transform on own, we make it competent by |
|
| 25:40 | it with chemicals or electrical shocks, , right? But um there's other |
|
| 25:46 | that, so that naturally transform can made competent. OK. Point is |
|
| 25:51 | you're competent, you're ready to take view. OK. Um And so |
|
| 25:56 | just look at the picture here, come back to gram negative in a |
|
| 25:59 | . Let's look at the picture We talked about artificial transformation. |
|
| 26:04 | So that's forcing the cells to take DNA through chemical means or other. |
|
| 26:09 | Here's the transformation complex in Streptococcus. you see number one, we have |
|
| 26:17 | big protein complex that takes up the fragment, but we have multiple oper |
|
| 26:23 | involved. We have multiple oper What do we call that Regulon? |
|
| 26:31 | ? So we have a transformation OK. So um the uh uh |
|
| 26:39 | we're gonna activate a Sigma factor that's to act on all those operon and |
|
| 26:43 | them going. OK. But what's trigger for that? OK. Um |
|
| 26:50 | , the build up of these confidence . OK. So we have, |
|
| 26:58 | have um confidence factors that are being . CF OK. And uh if |
|
| 27:06 | have enough cells, OK, then increase the levels of CF collectively. |
|
| 27:14 | . And if it's enough cells there produce enough to reach the threshold |
|
| 27:19 | right, then they bind to this protein com D OK. Then that |
|
| 27:28 | the, ultimately, we get to census of the sigma factor. |
|
| 27:33 | That they can turn on these operon lead to formation of this transformer |
|
| 27:38 | OK? So the question is um uh why tie it to cell |
|
| 27:49 | Why tie it to a quorum sensing ? Why does it do it |
|
| 27:54 | OK. Um Think of uh gross , OK. Um Are at any |
|
| 28:04 | on the growth curve lag log stationery have of course, live cells, |
|
| 28:13 | cells, right? Do you also dead cells present? Yeah, you |
|
| 28:18 | dead cells present at every part of curve. they're just overwhelmed by the |
|
| 28:23 | of living cells, right? Which what gives you the positive flow. |
|
| 28:28 | . So um the uh um so sensing is about if we have the |
|
| 28:39 | around, right? Then if, you have cells that are near stationary |
|
| 28:45 | versus cells that are at just coming of lag phase, where is there |
|
| 28:51 | to be more dead cells present near phase? Right? Because we're at |
|
| 28:57 | part of the growth curve, we're up right there gonna be more, |
|
| 29:00 | gonna be lots of live cells, gonna be more dead cells too. |
|
| 29:04 | so which is more likely to have fragments in the environment. Yes, |
|
| 29:11 | of more dead cells, dead cells , they give up their DNA. |
|
| 29:14 | . So that's they think that's the behind tying this to um this um |
|
| 29:21 | sensing thing cell density. OK. you have let let's not do all |
|
| 29:26 | this because as I've said many than times, right? What you never |
|
| 29:30 | in these diagrams is the amount of it takes, this is all |
|
| 29:34 | this is all anabolism occurring here, ? Building or building this thing. |
|
| 29:38 | it's gonna take energy, it's energy transcribe, to translate and to put |
|
| 29:43 | together. So you're not just gonna it willy nilly, right? So |
|
| 29:49 | tie it to a process that ensures likelihood that maybe they'll be getting five |
|
| 29:54 | to pick up. OK? Um the, that's the thought anyway. |
|
| 30:01 | . Um And so the other thing is that DNA that comes in. |
|
| 30:07 | you see double stranded here, uh of these components in the transformers zone |
|
| 30:11 | breaks down one of the strands. only one comes in. So one |
|
| 30:16 | comes in. OK. And so it does, if it's gonna be |
|
| 30:22 | of this genome, right? So a single strand comes in single stranded |
|
| 30:31 | that will have to recombine. So have to recombine with the genome if |
|
| 30:34 | gonna stick around, right? So is a for transformation. Generally, |
|
| 30:38 | is always going to be a part this, right? There's just |
|
| 30:41 | a single strand in the cell is gonna last very long. So I |
|
| 30:44 | recombine. OK. So um any about that? OK. Let me |
|
| 30:51 | back to the gram negative real OK. So over here, uh |
|
| 30:58 | these gram negatives have a specialized plu remember the the pylos is fewer |
|
| 31:04 | specialized functions like a sex pilots will with conjugation. OK? So this |
|
| 31:10 | acts to kind of polymerize and extend to latch on to a DNA |
|
| 31:17 | OK? And then de polymerize, it shorter and bringing it in in |
|
| 31:23 | process, right? So by less complicated than, than uh what |
|
| 31:31 | saw here, OK? With all stuff, OK. So pill, |
|
| 31:36 | basically extending attaching to a DNA, I presume is gonna be a recognition |
|
| 31:41 | binding thing there, right? And then play it into the cell. |
|
| 31:46 | really kind of what it boils down . So, not as complicated as |
|
| 31:50 | this is. OK. Um And there's a, these are two, |
|
| 31:56 | two that are famous for doing He mysteria, they're both actually |
|
| 32:00 | we'll talk about them later. Um pathogens found in that group mysteria, |
|
| 32:06 | meningitis among others, gonorrhea. Another hoops causes um pneumonia. So um |
|
| 32:15 | right. So that's, that's OK. Uptake of N A DNA |
|
| 32:19 | the environment. OK. Any Hm. OK. All right. |
|
| 32:26 | Conjugation is next. OK. So uh of course, this involves cell |
|
| 32:34 | contact. OK. So um so , specialized pilots involved, right? |
|
| 32:41 | um it was pretty widespread among pro and so the fertility factor. So |
|
| 32:47 | is the entity. Uh just, think of the F factor as a |
|
| 32:52 | of genes. OK? And those contain the various components to enable the |
|
| 33:01 | I call mobilization of the DNA to copy it and then shove it |
|
| 33:07 | a, a recipient cell. And so, although we refer to |
|
| 33:13 | plasma as an F factor, I it's helpful to, to just say |
|
| 33:18 | plasma contains an F factor or it the genes to make it conjugal if |
|
| 33:22 | will. OK. Or conjugated, think is the proper word. So |
|
| 33:27 | other things can be on that right? And certainly are will be |
|
| 33:34 | . So a factor uh I don't it here, but an F factor |
|
| 33:40 | have an antibiotic resistance gene on, can have a uh a metabolic pathway |
|
| 33:45 | it can have a uh one of of the other, you know, |
|
| 33:51 | genes uh from the flexible gene pool there just, but having the F |
|
| 33:56 | makes it able to be passed to cells. That's the thing about an |
|
| 34:01 | factor is that plasma is now transferable other cells, right? And whatever |
|
| 34:06 | is on there, of course, with it. OK. So, |
|
| 34:11 | can be expressed in the recipient OK. So these are some of |
|
| 34:16 | things you'll see on there. So for transfer transfer genes, um sex |
|
| 34:22 | gene uh a relax is kind of helps bring the cells together um two |
|
| 34:28 | origins of replication. One for one just copying in the cell one for |
|
| 34:34 | for um conjugation. And so this is gonna be that rolling circle |
|
| 34:40 | we talked about earlier. OK. um the uh and so the thing |
|
| 34:48 | is that this bridge that occurs to sex pylos is does not stay that |
|
| 34:55 | . OK? It's too fragile. you have to remember, you |
|
| 35:00 | uh what's that called Brownian movement, ? The movement. You might think |
|
| 35:04 | cells, you look at a microscope you think the cells are actually |
|
| 35:08 | they're kind of just bouncing around, brownie movement molecules bouncing off of them |
|
| 35:12 | other cells knocking into them that's due that, that's that kind of vibratory |
|
| 35:18 | . It's not really a motion, it is um it's I i it |
|
| 35:23 | knock apart the connection between the right? So to make this more |
|
| 35:27 | , it'll draw the cells together. ? So you see it going down |
|
| 35:32 | here and that's those relax, relax proteins are kind of what keep the |
|
| 35:38 | together between the two cells. So um the uh and so it |
|
| 35:45 | . So remember the rolling circle OK. We're gonna create a nick |
|
| 35:49 | then we're gonna, we're gonna begin copy the um uh DNA and then |
|
| 35:55 | the, the strand that's being displaced shod into the, the recipient |
|
| 36:02 | So just to clarify here. So gonna have in these mating matings, |
|
| 36:08 | have a F plus, right? the donor and a recipient, which |
|
| 36:15 | F minus. OK. And so are differences on the cell surface molecules |
|
| 36:22 | an F minus, um they'll have receptors for pylos from an F |
|
| 36:28 | OK. So that prevents an F from conjugating with other F plus, |
|
| 36:34 | ? They won't have that. So only will we make an F minus |
|
| 36:38 | ? OK. And so, uh then, you know, once |
|
| 36:43 | the um DNA is pa uh pushed the, the recipient cell uh is |
|
| 36:49 | copied as well. So now the , the F minus has become F |
|
| 36:53 | . OK? So that's kind of basic F plus F minus conjugation plans |
|
| 36:59 | being copied and transferred to a recipient . OK. But then remember we |
|
| 37:04 | , we can this F minus which now an F plus can express whatever |
|
| 37:09 | are on there and can also transfer as well because it contains the F |
|
| 37:15 | , right? The F factor makes transfer. OK? So um many |
|
| 37:21 | about that. So there's gonna be part of this conjugation thing. This |
|
| 37:24 | the first part. OK. So second part involves this an H of |
|
| 37:29 | cell. OK. So uh let's what we do with this. |
|
| 37:50 | Mhm. Mhm. Ok. Um I try, OK. Cut out |
|
| 38:24 | 10. All right, let's Um Yeah, again, violent to |
|
| 38:39 | that's introduction. Uh HFR cell doesn't a sex pilot. OK? Um |
|
| 38:49 | certainly it's about integrating into the OK. So the um H of |
|
| 38:57 | cell has an F factor in But then it integrates into the |
|
| 39:03 | OK. And so the H of sends for high frequency recomb strain. |
|
| 39:12 | that refers to the fact that they carry out a high level of recombination |
|
| 39:20 | moving the chromosome to another cell. basically the H of our cell, |
|
| 39:26 | let me just show the picture here as we see here. So is |
|
| 39:37 | for insertion sequence. So there are specific sequences very short that are homologous |
|
| 39:43 | each other. And that's where, here again, recombination occurring, |
|
| 39:48 | So, um so what we've done basically make the entire chromosome now and |
|
| 39:56 | factor, right? It can, can be mobilized, it can the |
|
| 40:00 | thing can move. OK. Um so you see here the plants, |
|
| 40:06 | that's integrated. OK. Here in box is the F factor. |
|
| 40:14 | So remember the tr a genes and oe four transfer are essential for making |
|
| 40:21 | chromosome able to be copied and OK. So, and what the |
|
| 40:28 | is that? OK. Um So, um now, so pay |
|
| 40:38 | to this part, which is when , when that conjugation and transfer |
|
| 40:44 | OK. It occurs. So this this is where it starts copying and |
|
| 40:50 | counterclockwise, I mean clockwise, excuse , goes clockwise in this direction. |
|
| 40:56 | . So it starts here and goes , right? So that tells you |
|
| 41:01 | the last part to be transferred into recipient cell is what's in that |
|
| 41:08 | OK. That will be the last that goes in. OK. So |
|
| 41:14 | the result of that? What that is uh that oops that in one |
|
| 41:20 | these matings, HFRF minus, the minus stays as an F minus. |
|
| 41:26 | that's because the, so if you're get an entire chromosome into another cell |
|
| 41:33 | conjugation, they're gonna have to be for a long time. What's a |
|
| 41:38 | time? 90 minutes, two OK. That never happens. |
|
| 41:45 | Um So we, that's why the that to happen, that the F |
|
| 41:52 | stays as an F minus because this gets in there. You have to |
|
| 41:55 | there together for so long and it doesn't happen. So what happens is |
|
| 42:00 | portion of this chromosome is transferred either , here, here, maybe the |
|
| 42:08 | , I mean, that's pretty much , right? So it's all dependent |
|
| 42:13 | on the, on the length of contact, how much gets passed. |
|
| 42:17 | ? Once it breaks then wherever it's , whether here, here here, |
|
| 42:24 | what gets transferred. OK. So course, that's still OK. |
|
| 42:28 | You the even though the F minus as an F minus, right? |
|
| 42:32 | has acquired one or more genes. ? But with that F minus |
|
| 42:38 | what's the only way you can pass on to the next generation? How |
|
| 42:46 | that fin cell pass this on to next generation? Uh Yeah. |
|
| 42:53 | Cell division, right? Binary right? Vertical gene transfer, |
|
| 42:57 | The only way. OK. So so this is just showing you here's |
|
| 43:05 | vine biosynthesis gene here, right? plus. So it has the intact |
|
| 43:11 | set of genes to make vine, is amino acid. This recipient is |
|
| 43:16 | that. And so through conjugation. it's an HFR strain. And we |
|
| 43:21 | that because the F plus is in chromosome, it's not outside. |
|
| 43:25 | And so uh do transformation. So you see this kind of X |
|
| 43:31 | that means those two sections, those DNA s are recombining. Yeah. |
|
| 43:36 | then um the F minus cell has that V gene. So, restoring |
|
| 43:43 | function where it was lacking before. . And um again, so uh |
|
| 43:49 | not gonna transfer this whole chromosome, parts of it all depends on how |
|
| 43:54 | they're together. OK. So um . Well, let's any questions, |
|
| 44:02 | gonna show a couple of um quick here just to kind of go through |
|
| 44:06 | once more. So here is um basic F plus F minus sue. |
|
| 44:18 | Pylos extends, this is basically just , adding more of the P protein |
|
| 44:24 | on it. And then uh so see it has both the chromosome and |
|
| 44:30 | plat with the F factor there. this is kind of slow. Come |
|
| 44:36 | , here we go, let's see recipient. So there we go. |
|
| 44:40 | there's an F minus, right? the plans with. And uh there |
|
| 44:48 | go. So then they come together so you really don't, you don't |
|
| 44:52 | see anything going on. But what's is um you know, those tr |
|
| 44:57 | genes right that are on this plasma F factor are being expressed, getting |
|
| 45:03 | machinery together to get transform uh conjugation . And then when they're finally ready |
|
| 45:08 | go, then we see it um . OK? And so we mobilize |
|
| 45:17 | plasmid, we mobilize that plasma. we go copy and then rolling circle |
|
| 45:27 | there we go. Boom, And now it's an F plus. |
|
| 45:32 | . And apparently there was a gene here that be that's expressed. Can |
|
| 45:38 | guess what it is? Hm A pet, you know the chia pet |
|
| 45:47 | um FMRI must have been a FMRI on that uh inherited plasma, |
|
| 45:53 | The F minus cell expresses right? hair. OK. So um let's |
|
| 46:01 | at the other one real quick. OK. So the other one is |
|
| 46:10 | HFR conjugation. OK. So here out the same. So of |
|
| 46:17 | we have um now the plant was , right? So it's part of |
|
| 46:23 | chromosome now. OK. Which means can then move that whole thing over |
|
| 46:29 | are at least part of it and F factor chromosome. OK. So |
|
| 46:37 | starts out the same way. Obviously pylos attach the recipient, bring them |
|
| 46:43 | and then mobilize that chromosome and begin shove it in there. OK. |
|
| 46:52 | , right? The at the end where those tr a genes are |
|
| 46:54 | so you're not gonna get, it's stay as an F minus cell. |
|
| 46:58 | . But recombination, right? You have the recombination occurring here. |
|
| 47:04 | as you see there, right? , uh again, as with the |
|
| 47:10 | conjugation, I think, um does one have hair again? Uh |
|
| 47:18 | it says a baldi. OK. uh it must be done some other |
|
| 47:23 | . So the fre gene wasn't inherited time. OK. So um so |
|
| 47:28 | , the, the basic F plus minus HFRF minus conjugations. OK. |
|
| 47:35 | Are there any, any questions why answer this one? Are there any |
|
| 47:44 | other way out of the way? questions? OK. Yeah. Um |
|
| 47:53 | question. So is hr require No, because quorum sensing is only |
|
| 47:58 | transformation. It's not part of Yeah. Yeah. So quorum sensing |
|
| 48:02 | only restricted to that 11 mechanism OK? And only in gram |
|
| 48:14 | So the F prime is kind of variation here. OK. Uh And |
|
| 48:25 | again, with conjugation, it's really common mechanism how an branch resistance passes |
|
| 48:32 | cell types, which I'm very familiar that. Of course. OK. |
|
| 48:44 | down to one blast off. Uh Gee let's see. Um So |
|
| 48:52 | are the two? Uh somebody said yes, C and Ecne. So |
|
| 49:04 | C and E OK. So now each of our cell forms through integration |
|
| 49:12 | the that factor. So then of , it can come out as |
|
| 49:16 | OK. Um The frequency at which comes out, I don't know. |
|
| 49:23 | , um, when it does come normally what went in, which is |
|
| 49:29 | you see in purple, right? by the two insertion sequences. I |
|
| 49:35 | , that's what went in, that's should come out when it excises, |
|
| 49:39 | ? And it does, you except for like one in the one |
|
| 49:42 | a million times. Uh, what's frequency they show here? So what |
|
| 49:48 | call rare? Yeah, one in million, right? Rare legitimate |
|
| 49:53 | So the recombination, the excision is call it kind of uh cocky, |
|
| 50:00 | ? So it's not this, this coming out, it's like here to |
|
| 50:08 | comes out, right? So that's what went in, right? It |
|
| 50:14 | for the most part. But, this is not what went in. |
|
| 50:19 | is what's coming out though, And you can see it, of |
|
| 50:22 | , the bee gene, right? bee gene uh right there. So |
|
| 50:25 | was not part of the original F , right? It's getting that from |
|
| 50:31 | , the chromosome of the host, ? Of that cell. Um So |
|
| 50:37 | what we call an F crime. . That plasmid is the F factor |
|
| 50:44 | contains now this gene it didn't have . OK. And so what's the |
|
| 50:50 | that brings to that? So the you remember is while when this |
|
| 50:54 | right? It acquires this part of , of the uh chromosome, |
|
| 51:01 | This part but then this part is left behind, right. So the |
|
| 51:07 | the plasma right there. So this is left behind in the chromosome. |
|
| 51:11 | part is acquired right. So some some of the original F factors stays |
|
| 51:17 | . Um but it does acquire this gene. OK. So the, |
|
| 51:25 | this if this conjugates right, the continuous conjugates right, that could create |
|
| 51:33 | partial diploid. OK. So of , remember bacteria are haploid, |
|
| 51:39 | One set of genes, right? But if it conjugates with a member |
|
| 51:45 | the population that that has a bee already, well, it's acquired a |
|
| 51:51 | one in this example. OK. so what does that mean? |
|
| 51:56 | it means it can um jeez it it can um it could evolve |
|
| 52:10 | OK. So it's got a, it has a good bee gene in |
|
| 52:13 | chromosome but that one of the plants maybe it can evolve independently evolve at |
|
| 52:19 | faster rate, maybe acquire mutation that modifies the function, improves function or |
|
| 52:25 | different function or something. And so , that's the benefit of being a |
|
| 52:31 | diploid. You have this kind of copy of a gene to kind of |
|
| 52:36 | play around with if you will. . Um The al although it could |
|
| 52:43 | it too possibly, right? Remember selective pressure thing. But aside from |
|
| 52:48 | , you know, the partial diploid , that's could be uh of a |
|
| 52:52 | at some point. OK. Um . So let's uh let's, I |
|
| 52:59 | all three things laid out here and not stopping yet. OK. Um |
|
| 53:06 | we have all three laid out So just to show you that if |
|
| 53:10 | have questions, obviously, let me . So here's our, our, |
|
| 53:13 | basic F plus F minus mating um uh shown here, right? So |
|
| 53:22 | minus becomes an F plus cell, HFR. So the plastic integrates into |
|
| 53:28 | chromosome. Uh but because it has F factor, it can move part |
|
| 53:32 | that chromosome to recipient cell. Um remember the F minus typically stays as |
|
| 53:39 | F minus. OK. Then the the F prime is, does involve |
|
| 53:46 | HFR cell for sure. OK. the excision of the plas of the |
|
| 53:53 | factor is kind of askew. And so in this example, uh |
|
| 54:00 | aging comes with it because of the excision. So maybe something like this |
|
| 54:07 | this comes out, right? And the aging is with that F factor |
|
| 54:13 | it wasn't before, right? And that can create the partial diploid, |
|
| 54:18 | ? Possibly, right. Uh The with no cell and that cell already |
|
| 54:23 | an aging and it has an extra . OK. Many questions by those |
|
| 54:29 | , right? So you know, task is really just to be able |
|
| 54:31 | differentiate between these three things. Uh similar, what's different. OK. |
|
| 54:39 | questions? OK. So let's look transduction. OK. So it's gonna |
|
| 54:45 | a viral intermediate. So I just really the the difference between generalized and |
|
| 54:53 | is this. So remember we went viral life cycles. OK. So |
|
| 55:00 | talking about page bacterial viruses here. so the light the light page, |
|
| 55:08 | what can give you generalized transduction. the the lambda lysogen type Lioy type |
|
| 55:17 | that can lead to the specialized So that's in terms of the viral |
|
| 55:23 | is those two types that can give ster alliance or the specialized. |
|
| 55:29 | So with light page, right, their, their mode is infect um |
|
| 55:37 | copies of phage and kill cell, ? So what happens in in the |
|
| 55:45 | of that is that the page accidentally in host DNA into the page |
|
| 55:56 | OK. And now that page is capable of infecting another cell because |
|
| 56:04 | does have the capsule and the and tail fibers right? To bind the |
|
| 56:10 | , right? But it can't cause kind of infection inside because once the |
|
| 56:14 | goes in, that's not page that's DNA from their previous host, |
|
| 56:21 | ? So as we see, so , these guys with arrows pointing to |
|
| 56:27 | are the page containing bacterial DNA from host here, right? And so |
|
| 56:33 | affects, it bursts out of the . So it will kill that cell |
|
| 56:37 | page, right? So then it on to in effect and the ones |
|
| 56:40 | containing the bacterial DNA, it basically the vehicle to trans to transfer this |
|
| 56:47 | to another cell. OK. So that's what we see, right? |
|
| 56:52 | we have to have recombination occurring, course, they have this become a |
|
| 56:56 | part of the genome. OK. , but the point is is that |
|
| 57:00 | DNA, the source of this is a previous host. OK. |
|
| 57:07 | um so, so certainly recombination is be an essential part of this to |
|
| 57:13 | that because that's gonna be a permanent of its genome. OK. The |
|
| 57:17 | thing is theoretically. So when so when this DNA is chopped up |
|
| 57:22 | , right, any one of these be packaged accidentally? OK. And |
|
| 57:30 | that means is theoretically any gene in in this initial host can be |
|
| 57:38 | OK. That's why I call it because any, any gene in that |
|
| 57:43 | is possible to be transferred. So that's in contrast with specialized because |
|
| 57:50 | not that way, it's only restricted a couple of genes, maybe specific |
|
| 57:56 | , right? Not any anyone in , not any gene in the whole |
|
| 58:00 | . OK? Because it's based on phage misogyny integration, right? The |
|
| 58:07 | formation. OK. And that actual in the chromosome, we didn't talk |
|
| 58:13 | this in um when we talked about previously, but the land of page |
|
| 58:18 | a specific spot in inserts and it's these, this galactose gene in this |
|
| 58:26 | gene. OK? And so G for it's a KOL pathway helps break |
|
| 58:34 | the lactose or sugar biotin is a . It, it's for the, |
|
| 58:38 | the anabolic, it's about building making , OK? But the point here |
|
| 58:43 | us is that this is where this phage always integrates OK in the E |
|
| 58:48 | chromosome, OK? Between these two . OK. And so um when |
|
| 58:55 | um when you see the transduction part the specialized transduction is when the page |
|
| 59:03 | , right? So remember the, prophage has to come out of the |
|
| 59:07 | if it's gonna go and then go the light cycle, right? And |
|
| 59:11 | when it does that, you know , what does this look like? |
|
| 59:14 | ? It's one of these a barn looks like an F prime, |
|
| 59:17 | Resembles an F prime situation here because gonna take this is what should come |
|
| 59:23 | right here to here, right? in this case, in this |
|
| 59:28 | we're taking part of that galactose gene it. OK? So it's kind |
|
| 59:33 | going like from here here, So we're leaving behind part of the |
|
| 59:42 | genome, but taking part of the coli genome that galactose gene. |
|
| 59:49 | And so um so you see it again, right? So this contains |
|
| 59:54 | and the part of the page is behind. OK. Now, um |
|
| 60:01 | that page infects another cell from a now that we have again, two |
|
| 60:08 | , right? Partial deploy again. . So, so again, the |
|
| 60:12 | here that's specialized is it's really only Glas and biotin gene that gets transferred |
|
| 60:18 | the process, right? Not, not possible for other genes far away |
|
| 60:24 | here to be, to be OK. And it may extend beyond |
|
| 60:31 | and B into maybe something here or here. OK. But not much |
|
| 60:37 | beyond. OK. So we OK. So that's specialized transaction. |
|
| 60:44 | . Specialized and generalized everybody. And terms of transduction, there are a |
|
| 60:49 | of um toxins are, are, are transferred through um transduction, especially |
|
| 60:58 | transduction. Uh Like I think uh toxin maybe, but there's a number |
|
| 61:04 | pathogens that produce toxins. And a of these cholera I think is what |
|
| 61:08 | toxin is passes through transduction. Um Many questions about that transaction, |
|
| 61:17 | virus, OK? Um All So OK. So yeah, I |
|
| 61:24 | mention it but let me just So it resembles right? The F |
|
| 61:28 | . So the F prime is when plans, when the plans comes out |
|
| 61:32 | of cocky, right? Takes part the chromosome with it, right? |
|
| 61:35 | similarly, uh lambda phase does this specialized transduction? OK. Um All |
|
| 61:44 | . So transportable elements. OK. as mentioned before, this is a |
|
| 61:51 | we see across all life forms, this. OK. Um If you |
|
| 61:58 | , you probably mentioned this in intro um with corn gene expression, uh |
|
| 62:05 | jumping gene as they were called by trans transposon is responsible for that. |
|
| 62:11 | . Um And so they typically jump in the chromosome or you carry out |
|
| 62:18 | chromosomes. OK? And that's kind what it does, it stays in |
|
| 62:22 | cell, but there are instances where can get out of the cell, |
|
| 62:26 | ? And we see that in different bacterial types. OK. So |
|
| 62:32 | trans, the transposition is the act getting out and moving. OK. |
|
| 62:39 | so there's, there's a structure to things. OK? And so we |
|
| 62:44 | like the, the TT N is , the shorthand for referring to a |
|
| 62:50 | . Um So what they all have a minimum is the enzyme, the |
|
| 62:57 | that does the cutting. OK. and pasting um flanked by these in |
|
| 63:06 | repeat elements. OK. And so does that look like? So what |
|
| 63:10 | , what we call an insertion sequence what you see here. OK. |
|
| 63:17 | the most basic transposon is what we insertion sequence. It's basically just these |
|
| 63:23 | repeats in the transpose a enzyme in middle. That's it. OK. |
|
| 63:29 | here's what an inverted repeat looks right? So um you can see |
|
| 63:34 | we go uh a atcgat, we flip it around, all right. |
|
| 63:39 | atcgat, right? So same sequence invert. OK. And so within |
|
| 63:46 | , there's a sequence within that is it cuts. So a staggered kind |
|
| 63:51 | cut um we call sticky ends, ? And then they can recombine. |
|
| 63:58 | the um the uh the two ways happens is just think of it as |
|
| 64:05 | in a word document, right? can cut and paste, you can |
|
| 64:08 | and paste and that's really the difference . So it can the transpose on |
|
| 64:13 | exist where it originally is copy it then go elsewhere. But you still |
|
| 64:19 | this copy here, right? Or can just be cut out completely and |
|
| 64:24 | move elsewhere, cut and paste, and paste, cut and paste, |
|
| 64:27 | ? That's non replicated versus replicated. . Now, um you know, |
|
| 64:34 | mentioned that these things jump around the but you and other you carry out |
|
| 64:41 | mechanisms to kind of control that. don't think of this as you're continually |
|
| 64:45 | jumping around like a jumping beam, , all over your chromosomes all the |
|
| 64:49 | . No, right. It's a , very low frequency. OK? |
|
| 64:54 | you don't want that because if you , if it's a allowed to happen |
|
| 64:59 | , you can just pop in normal genes, right? And cause it |
|
| 65:04 | , right? So you have, has to be controlled. But uh |
|
| 65:07 | think there's implications in these transpo elements have functions that might control regulation of |
|
| 65:17 | genes, I think uh which is this happens. Um But any case |
|
| 65:22 | terms of prokaryotes, OK. Um are a few antibiotic resistances that are |
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| 65:30 | this way. OK. Now, so this is the most basic type |
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| 65:36 | transposon. OK. What we call complex? Hold on, let me |
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| 65:42 | this pen working. Ok. What oops, my microphone thing just |
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| 65:51 | So let me just lo lo where's that thing at? Hello. |
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| 65:59 | . Hello. Hello. There we . Ok. I rely on the |
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| 66:03 | , we got a little thingy here of wasting time with batteries. |
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| 66:07 | because we're almost done. So. uh ok. So complex. If |
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| 66:14 | pen will work, please come on . Ok. Doesn't want to |
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| 66:21 | All right. So uh wait OK. Complex TN for sure. |
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| 66:34 | transposing that contains the insertion sequence plus or more genes. All right. |
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| 66:42 | now we got something that we can another gene we can transfer by making |
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| 66:46 | complex, complex transposing. OK. uh that's the nature of the types |
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| 66:52 | can carry antibiotic resistance, for OK. So here's an example of |
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| 66:57 | we can transfer. OK. So have what's called a conjugated transposon. |
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| 67:03 | . So it's revolving, of conjugation in this process. OK. |
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| 67:09 | the um so here's our transposon. . So again, you have donor |
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| 67:15 | and the transposon contains the elements to . OK. So step one is |
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| 67:26 | come out of the chromosome. So is the transpose on there. Now |
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| 67:33 | then, and you also see, course, here's the pylos right, |
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| 67:38 | the cells, donor recipient and then right. Now, the the transposon |
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| 67:48 | exist in this state of being outside chromosome. It is only outside for |
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| 67:55 | purpose of doing the, the transfer . This part here. OK. |
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| 68:02 | It will then integrate back in. that's, that's the central for |
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| 68:08 | OK? To integrate back into the . OK. That's so these are |
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| 68:14 | that have these elements of conjugation can this. OK? You could think |
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| 68:19 | other ways to do this, And it does happen in other |
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| 68:23 | right? So you could have, just look at this cell by |
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| 68:28 | OK? You could have, let's a virus, right? In facts |
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| 68:37 | maybe that transposon jumps into it. ? And gets packaged. OK. |
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| 68:45 | theoretically possible. Or maybe it's a that has a plasma in here. |
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| 68:52 | has an F factor plasma, And it can jump into that |
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| 68:58 | So just think of OK, how it could it hitchhike on? So |
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| 69:00 | jumping around, maybe it jumps into plasma that's an F plus or maybe |
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| 69:05 | jumps into a viral DNA segment that's the cell and those those are |
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| 69:11 | OK. Um And then when it to the recipient, it jumps out |
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| 69:15 | goes into the chromosome. So you , these are all possibilities. |
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| 69:20 | I I believe the conjugal, what seeing here, the conjugal transfer that's |
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| 69:25 | the most common way. But these things can happen too. OK? |
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| 69:33 | OK. Any questions? OK. again, as you go through these |
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| 69:38 | mechanisms, it's OK. What identifies one? OK? Um That recombination |
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| 69:44 | a part of it. OK? All right, we'll start with 10 |
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| 69:51 | . Thank |
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