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00:18 Okay. Uh huh. Right. think there we go. Well folks

00:35 let's see. So reminders I sent out uh that the answer key for

00:44 quiz previous is now available that always available on the Tuesday following the

00:52 So Take a look if you have , let me know. Um smart

00:58 . There's nothing to do this so no assignments due until the 13th

01:03 think so or something like that. Let's see this week, so we're

01:09 finish up chapter three um if anything's over and maybe about motility at the

01:18 end, but we'll see you can through it all. It's Thursday,

01:21 Thursday will be kind of chapter 4.1 that flip back and basically all the

01:28 is on in that folder. Uh it's gonna be a bunch of clicker

01:35 focused on obviously that content. So inter intermingled with slides of you know

01:43 kind of summarize capped over the plains . So do you um prepare for

01:53 ? Um Let's see other things. schedule. Remember the scheduler for example

02:04 exams up for a few weeks so but the speculator opens friday.

02:11 , there will be multiple times you sign up for. Um It's spread

02:15 over a couple of days so lots choices there but you do have to

02:20 so make sure you're registered first. ? Um Turning point data so um

02:29 going to be what's posted at this will be erased because it doesn't count

02:35 anything. Um And then we'll be by the points that will count towards

02:42 quicker points. Uh africa section. so um So again the 10 o'clock

02:51 starts today. Remember that the tenants not the super high bar you got

02:56 days to do it as you Um So uh any questions about any

03:03 this kind of silver stuff. Okay let's just go ahead and recap a

03:10 bit. So kind of over to at this point. Chapter three.

03:16 at appropriate sell the the future of democratic sell um kind of started from

03:24 outside in really. So looking at cell envelope um we looked at the

03:30 membrane and fossil lipids and some of adaptations that bacteria have. Uh just

03:40 temperature. Okay. Um and then little bit about transport as well.

03:48 of kind of like it was an for the most part was putting time

03:53 cell envelope. Cell wall structure of negative. Gram positive. Okay so

03:58 should be able to compare and contrast positive gram negative but this one have

04:04 doesn't and vice versa similar how they're . Yeah. Um And you know

04:11 were a couple of questions on the the flat and the quiz one about

04:14 so that's kind of kind of I know this stuff. Okay um Any

04:21 about gram positive gram. Okay so look at a typical cell walls.

04:30 uh these are variations. So part the uh one of the most obvious

04:38 is bacteria that didn't lack a cell . Okay. No pepper. Why

04:43 at all? Right, so it's plasma. These are a small general

04:51 few species. They're the only ones are like this among the bacteria and

04:59 particularly respiratory pathogens. Um and and , very small. There actually are

05:07 type that can infect yourselves and stay yourselves. That's kind of how they

05:13 . Um Archaea can some lack of wall many like and so all of

05:19 that do have cell walls is not the same similar but not quite the

05:25 as pepper. Black. And hence term pseudo pseudo Mirian. Mirian is

05:31 of an older term. It also Paula, peptic, light tan.

05:39 Sometimes with those countries interchangeably. Uh Miriam will be kind of a variation

05:45 people like him. We've we've been about. Okay, um now mycobacterium

05:50 don't confuse mycoplasma with micro bacteria. know they have the same four letters

05:58 begin their name. They are very . Okay and so michael bacteria.

06:05 tuberculosis, leprosy and cracks were all by not tuberculosis. Leprosy are caused

06:11 mycobacterium. Okay, if you're a you use mycobacterium. Okay. A

06:19 pathogen type but they all have similar in terms of how they look when

06:24 grow. Okay. And we can that from the liquid culture here on

06:32 right side. Okay this is a could be something like this curled like

06:37 how it would grow in liquid Just for a great cloud solution after

06:43 to 24 hours um Typically grows in bacteria in liquid. Uh michael bacteria

06:49 like this so it has called a forming at the top. So basically

06:55 the cells are clustered at the air interface. Okay on a plate again

07:00 body type of media you're growing You don't have this kind of appearance

07:05 a plate. If you stuck your wire loop in it it would have

07:09 a consistency of like candle wax or . It's very waxy kind of consistency

07:16 it. So and so it's all to the nature of its cell

07:22 So it does have types of So I pointed out first. All

07:29 so right there. Okay but it's the most prominent structure. Okay.

07:36 it has some of that. But it's the worst by the extent

07:41 all this material. Okay. And heavily with these micro folic acids which

07:48 gonna be very long hydrocarbon chains that the structure of the indigenous waxy consistency

07:57 with various fossil lipids as you see . Um Other kinds of delightful

08:03 Okay this this portion is stuck to attached to the solo through sugars here

08:10 than galactic and kind of connect all to the. Okay now the nature

08:18 the cell envelope it gives it some features. Okay, one of them

08:22 sustaining you can't stain but a typical thing if you try to you'll get

08:28 results. Okay some sort of purplish of the pinkish some mixture uh some

08:36 these things all so it's kind of so you can't use that as a

08:39 to consistently identified himself. Used what's which uses temperature ready to drive staining

08:48 it doesn't refuse easily through this thick the right. I think all that

08:54 means that this uh these species of Bactrim. Oh They grow slow

09:02 Being for bacterium is you know get growth. The sea lice cells like

09:08 chest tube there probably about 48 hours see really decent growth. Okay,

09:14 things you get decent girls in 1824 . Most bacterial types but this guy

09:18 longer and through tunnels. It takes know it takes nutrients a little bit

09:23 to diffuse through that thick envelope. if they tend to grow slower also

09:29 that they can be those strains that pathogens can be problems because antibiotics have

09:38 we'll get it as fast as well go defuse quickly through the envelope.

09:43 that provides some some different characteristics. but two points is a they do

09:51 just not it's it's uh much more least my are present in this thick

09:59 around. Okay. Um Alright very about that. Yes, that's

10:09 The acid fast stain is it uses different dye. It kind of gives

10:16 a pinkish color actually that's as But it uses there's two methods you

10:21 use a super concentrated dye right? use that to kind of help

10:28 helping diffuse into the cell cell. more common is typically than using heat

10:35 drive that stage. So there's other that that use heat as well,

10:40 a sports thing. And those sports very resistant to they're having the size

10:46 . So you also need heat to it spain's into that. Well any

10:52 mission? You'll do dream lab, do the acid fast stain uh as

10:57 as the grand thing that's coming actually up in a couple of weeks.

11:03 Okay so uh external structures this this the last part of part one of

11:10 kind of. Once we're through this we'll kind of go to the design

11:14 and see what's going on inside their the capsule is um is a defined

11:21 . So capsule versus slam there. , and you can see the 33

11:28 forms here. So capsule. A layer of biofilm biofilm is a collection

11:34 lots of cells. Obviously a capsule layer are surrounded a single cell.

11:41 , it's not biofilm is kind of a layer of forms around it.

11:46 why it looks like a film because produces the sugary substances that coat the

11:50 . The whole growth. Okay, to the capsule tightly adheres to the

11:59 surface. Okay. And a slime is a more of a loose

12:04 Typically slime layers are I consider those like byproducts of metabolism. So you

12:10 grow certain cell types that form capitals medium with lots of shooting for example

12:16 a food source and they'll take a of excess and it will just come

12:21 as a slime layer around it. so it's uh oftentimes it's kind of

12:28 metabolic byproducts thing that just surrounds you , you can probably see that many

12:34 cells have some of this around Okay. Depending again on what

12:39 what they're eating as their food source can cause it to vary the nature

12:44 it. But it's not something that jean slime layers aren't cool before by

12:51 gene. Okay. But capsules are . The council's already defined structure that

13:00 is a gene current product in And typically very often counsels associated with

13:09 . My Syrian meningitis, meningitis is very good caption, the ammonium

13:14 streptococcus and a very thin capital. you will see a number of pathogens

13:19 that happened as a variance factor. fact having a thick capsule. You

13:24 make it less able to be fatal by self. So you're you're you're

13:30 immune system cells like neutral films that and blood macro thinking these ourselves and

13:35 defenses. Too many happens and they a harder time living themselves have captions

13:43 Um biofilm again, we'll talk about and chapter four coming up. It's

13:50 uh of course represents a assembly of of centers ultimately in the biofilm.

13:58 . But kind of the glue that them all together is a policy

14:04 Right. In some cases protein right mixture that they secrete. So

14:10 too, is this material is gene ? Okay, They are programmed to

14:16 it. Uh And basically it's kind glue that holds everything together when you

14:22 a biofilm and it's kind of stick gooey. That's why because this material

14:27 secreted. Okay. But it's not that's it surrounds all of those things

14:32 that in that matrix Ok, capsules sign players are about what's around the

14:39 cells. Okay. Um Okay, questions? Okay, so uh so

14:49 is the question. Alright. We we had last time at the

14:53 So let's see, let's see what this time. So remember the position

14:58 . D. If you got the app there, Clickers will always be

15:02 handheld things. Always 41. Okay, okay, I'm gonna put

15:41 timer on. Mhm. Remember it's acceptable to have two or three heads

15:52 than one debate you wish? But talk about it versus rams coming up

16:04 I don't want to hear that that . Okay. Okay. What we

16:19 before? 37% f. Okay. Thank you. Mhm. That we

16:33 I had the stats from earlier, stats were like, it was like

16:38 I think. So this just goes . So Michael bacteria. Ah That's

16:45 . They do have just talking about right? They do have pepper like

16:48 . Okay. Not a lot, they do have something. Gram positive

16:54 . It's gram negatives that possess endo . Okay, this is false,

17:03 tai kok acids. Found only gram though it's only a gram positives.

17:09 , the gram negatives have liberal You don't find that in the gram

17:15 . Oh, pipe sacrifice. Only negatives. That's the oh play sack

17:21 in the lps. Okay, that grand positive caucus. No, because

17:28 layers, three layers is always the negative. Okay, gram positive wouldn't

17:32 that 3rd outer layer. Okay, uh industry. Yeah, what's this

17:42 that? Yes, correct. But blackmailer internet, Yeah. Any other

17:55 ? Alright, alright then we have question. Oh goodness yes we

18:02 Alright, this is we're going to today. So it's gonna be one

18:06 those. How are you doing I was mm hmm yep. Timer's

19:03 . Mhm mm hmm. Yeah. . 987 5421. Okay, we'll

19:28 what the answer is next time. that number back. Okay.

19:34 so let's go. So um you even know the parts of eukaryotic sort

19:40 skeleton. But I put it up to the comparison. So just to

19:47 you how complex it is and Alright extensive network of tubules that involved

19:55 uh intermediate filaments that can anchor Uh micro filaments that can also have

20:03 and movement. Okay. Things like as a micro filament. Um So

20:09 extensive But about 2016 years ago uh skeletal elements are also found in

20:19 Okay. Um Not the extensive network this of multiple types but nonetheless um

20:28 elements that are models to carry out counterparts uh in bacteria. These function

20:37 in um uh bring about expectation. when bacteria divine um They constricted the

20:48 performing a septum and then breaks apartment cells. And so several skeletal elements

20:55 involved in that aspect in helping facilitate wall synthesis in some cases facilitating the

21:03 and division process that's kind of really their role. Okay. And the

21:10 these were found in mutant strains, in we saw the M.

21:15 E. Protein before in the context sellable synthesis synthesis. So uh and

21:25 see it you see that particular M. R. E.

21:29 I. And the other variations in shaped cells like and the mutant obviously

21:36 not a rock shape because it has rod that the protein helps um the

21:49 of the rush of the south. and so is lacking that or defective

21:54 not produce the usual form morphology. so the so I mentioned besides from

22:03 like being involved in cell division. They can certainly provide some protection.

22:10 they facilitate in some cases so Okay. And so what you'll see

22:17 in a round comma shape sell this Z. Is common to all

22:26 Right, defines the center of the . Okay. Um It is what

22:32 about the segmentation of the cell as , also called the Z.

22:39 And so if you look at the shaped cell, you see still see

22:45 disease in the middle. Okay. where many rod shaped cells will provide

22:51 right symmetrically in the middle. And ftse kind of facilitates that citation process

22:58 call it. Okay. But in the rod shaped cells have the

23:03 R. E. So it travels parks along the bringing out several

23:14 Okay. And then these segments will up making one continuous Pepsico black can

23:21 layer around the south. Right? And then in the common shaped cells

23:27 see This sculpture involvement only on one . Right here, placenta.

23:36 on this side and that serves to of produce a bend in the

23:41 Okay. Um The uh common So with vibrio vibrio cholera cholera,

23:49 a type of crescent shaped cell. you see being a rod that has

23:54 rod elements of having the M. . E. B. Right?

23:58 because it's common shape that has the type of element but then it also

24:03 an F. Tsz because it will symmetrically in the middle of the

24:08 So this ftse component is again in middle of the cell. It's uh

24:16 found in all three things and as see will bring about the division,

24:23 have to sell and sell the Okay? Um so remember that in

24:28 of soul self form and shape these . But so to remember the cell

24:35 . Alright. And the osmotic right? Water moving into the

24:40 pressing against that sell walled in. and and then the contribution of the

24:46 skeleton. So all that together kind helps bring about shape form of the

24:51 and maintaining that in fact, um speaking of self vision expectation. So

25:00 can see in this spirit around spherical to sell the caucus that we have

25:11 initiating here. Right? So it at the sides of the cell and

25:16 anywhere. Okay. And so what's on? You can see in the

25:21 here segmentation is almost complete that we're . So on the material on both

25:28 . Okay. And that's that divides that we see here this thing.

25:34 ? It's kind of the complex. ? That is bringing that about.

25:41 here you see the F Tsz that's to be present, remembering all cell

25:46 . It's in the middle and that's bringing about the citation process.

25:51 So as the that complex will then synthesizing um envelope material on both sides

26:00 through the middle of the south. . And the conclusion of that,

26:04 course, is to have the F ring itself also? What kind of

26:11 ? Okay. And then that constriction about the formation of two cells.

26:17 course. Okay. So it's a effort with uh applications. So,

26:25 replication uh sell actually self will actually someone as they grow and the replication

26:35 . And then at a certain self dissertation isn't Okay. It's all kind

26:42 happens in fashion uh during the of course, as we'll see next

26:48 . Very rapid growth. Right? um and so we looked at the

26:54 morphology. These right, you're just get you can have a a single

27:01 . That depends on the plain of , Right? That if they all

27:07 in the same plane, we'll get arrangement of the chains, structure profits

27:12 ? If they divide perpendicular early. this way or that way, you

27:18 what's called a tech trad uh Not you need. Not that you don't

27:23 know this, but Micro caucus um have that test track arrangement. Um

27:32 then several planes, right? They on multiple planes then you see clusters

27:36 . That's staff. Okay, so different morphology Czar brought about by whether

27:44 have been buying multitude each other. . And that can bear now the

27:52 questions? Mhm. Yes, Yes. Substation is. It's as

28:02 as that. but as simple as . But remember that's how complicated it

28:06 . And trying to replicate the envelope on each half of the cells.

28:12 . But citation ultimately is the splitting form the two selves. Yeah.

28:21 similar. But they don't have they have to deal with the with the

28:28 of that complex envelope material. Little center. But they do have

28:34 uh acting acting circles and sell that of construction as well. So it's

28:39 of simple. So I mean plants cells up more a and actually process

28:47 expectation and which is really what similar to what that period because is gonna

28:52 a little bit more complex envelope than than you've been completely carry out the

29:00 , that accepted. Alright, I didn't get back to my intro

29:06 days. Remember that uh that Um Anyway, so nuclear. So

29:14 nuclear oid the burial chromosome. It not surrounded by a membrane bound constructed

29:24 . Okay, nuclear Boyd remember He means he's like, right,

29:30 an asteroid, right? I guess planet like Okay. Um so a

29:36 nuclear order is nucleus like but I even want you to say that because

29:41 gonna get nuclear stuff in your So just think of it. It's

29:45 area occupied by the crows. So was it proper chromosome is just existing

29:52 the cytoplasm, you know, because its size and there's parts of that

29:57 that are here on the road and together. Parts are more relaxed.

30:02 will look a have a kind of appearance. So it is distinction.

30:09 just looking at it for occupies space sanitizer compared to it's not occupying.

30:15 is a visual difference there. It doesn't it's not the memory.

30:21 just the way that. Okay so you can see that it's put that

30:26 the kind of areas in there are area occupied by the chromosome.

30:33 Remember that bacteria are essentially an archaea Pepperoni. Right. One chromosome,

30:42 circular chromosome. Um There are some that have variations of that but Um

30:50 have that double stranded circular DNA. . 1 of those. Okay.

30:55 story is important as we'll see because where replication will initiate. Okay so

31:02 and that's and that's the story Universal. It's not just currently we

31:07 multiple priorities in our chromosomes. But verification where existence initiated.

31:15 In the bacteria it um the kind you can see it here this is

31:23 somewhat relates to where that remember the . Tsz? Is that right?

31:31 they all kind of coordinate with each when replication starts. And so that

31:39 . Okay. And so um so origin so the D. N.

31:44 . Is actually attached in the here of that in the membrane to kind

31:53 hold it in place. Okay. there are other kinds of attachment points

31:58 the cell to kind of anchor But you see there are things or

32:03 so parts of the D. A. Is actively being transcribed and

32:07 . Other parts are not. There'll probably more coiled up inaccessible but it

32:14 depends on which you know what the is doing. Is that what genes

32:18 being expressed and which aren't? And are gonna be the parts of the

32:21 , the chromosome that are exposed or exposed. Okay. Um and so

32:27 the the coiling opera calling down if will is brought about by quoted uh

32:37 more. Okay. Um There are DNA binding proteins. Somebody green bead

32:44 are binding through it. Okay to it. Um You know and many

32:50 binding proteins, proteins can be involved controlling expression to um really just stabilizing

32:58 molecule uh can have different types of . Okay now uh we're gonna look

33:04 replication but not not the any gritty . Right? You had that before

33:10 I just want to kind of point something specific to bacteria. Okay.

33:15 so you know the size range of that relates to you know what's the

33:20 range of bacteria? 1 to 10 typically. And so that kind of

33:25 chromosome sizes. You see their biggest five billion uh bigger than that.

33:34 million. Sorry? Uh Perhaps a bigger than that. But we're talking

33:39 3 to 4000 genes at most on upper end. Okay. E coli

33:44 like I think like 4.5 times 10 the six chromosome size. Um Remember

33:52 can also have um extra chromosome um . It's okay. We'll focus more

33:59 plasmas in the third unit. But they can't have uh these elements

34:05 they're on the order of um maybe to 10,000. It's kind of the

34:13 size 5 15,000 base pairs compared to - five million. Okay. So

34:19 smaller. 3 to 5 genes. one gene. And that brings,

34:26 there are elements that can be transferred cells as we'll see. Okay um

34:33 those cells that do have them as of their genome genome is the totality

34:38 D. N. A. In south. So and looking at transcription

34:45 . Okay. Um you see a you don't see in eukaryotic cells and

34:52 this what we call pop policies own . Okay or policy riders don't need

34:58 say something and what you see there don't focus so much on on this

35:08 here. Okay, focus on this here. Okay um the yellow blob

35:17 circling what's called a polish zone. so just to show you what's going

35:23 there. So we have D. . A. So D.

35:25 A. Is of course the dark right label here. Alright. Blues

35:34 the M. RNA. Okay a blue squiggly lines are M.

35:39 Okay the yellow is protein. Okay I'm gonna help to give me a

35:48 picture here on the left. So our D. N. A.

35:52 of DNA containing a gene. And uh the process of expression right?

35:58 polymerase is gonna make an RNA copy a gene transcription. Right? And

36:04 the M. R. N. . Can then be translated.

36:08 And so a policy zone means what see here. Okay multiple Wibisono attached

36:17 attract script. Okay. Um so you would consider this a a

36:26 Okay. All right. That's the because multiple ribosomes on the transfer

36:33 So of course the writers interviewing about along with the R. And

36:38 And other components. So then you the formation of policy peptide chains.

36:42 you see that back up a sec . Right? So we'll learn in

36:50 When we get to unit three the you focus more on bacterial genetics will

36:55 that the M. RNA. Has called a ribosome binding site.

36:59 RBS don't worry about it now but help clarify this and RBS is a

37:06 binding site. Okay? And of as soon as the transcripts made when

37:10 becomes visible. Right then arrival zone plop down on it. Right?

37:15 as it moves right then it goes now that rivals and binding site is

37:21 . So another drives them combined. so and on it goes right moves

37:26 . It's not unoccupied one comes in So you keep going Right so multiple

37:30 zones going along I think probably peptide you can see that you know from

37:37 length of the plate peptide here that is much longer than here to here

37:45 it's almost done. Synthesize encouraging. of course it's gonna be almost fully

37:50 . So um so you're going so who cares about this? Right.

37:58 this is about the question. I'll back to that in a second.

38:01 the question is what's the implication of type of method? So we can't

38:07 abuse right, transcription translation is coupled we don't operate that don't operate that

38:17 . They have a nuclear member that the process and the nucleus is transcription

38:25 the outside of it. This is . Alright. Two rival zones on

38:30 window. Plastic particular um or not occurs outside the nucleus. So you

38:36 separation of the process prepare as you as soon as the transcript is available

38:43 themselves buying translation starts right? And rises. But you can see the

38:48 of this cell right? This is just focusing this just focusing on one

38:56 right? Like like say that but can see they're occurring. It can

39:00 everywhere. Any genes being expressed on protocol. Okay, so in fact

39:11 but first interpretation. Oh that hey already. That's a significant. That's

39:25 we're transcribing just take an example there one gene. What's the significance of

39:35 being able to use? Yeah, expression for sure. Yeah, you

39:41 you can you control these things uh efficiently. But there's something else that's

39:50 but there's something else to be compared a gene being expressed as you carry

39:57 and a junior expressed here in terms speed. An amount the amount of

40:07 being synthesized is a lot we can can express a lot of protein very

40:13 . Right? Because everything is running primal takes right. Transcribe translate and

40:21 translation sites. Right? Lots of zones on one strand. Uh that

40:27 there's a lot of protein very Okay, Why is this stuff?

40:31 you use very quickly And like he , can you shut down right away

40:36 well. Okay, so we'll talk that in three. But it goes

40:42 this concept goes with another concept. about to talk about it. Just

40:45 of put that back your head for . But this right here.

40:51 so this this right here. Um of course, in any style,

40:59 they're synthesized, can those proteins will in different locations obviously or can work

41:06 different locations. So for in the cytoplasmic membrane or outside maybe completely outside

41:16 cell. Okay, they have to funneled a different way to be able

41:22 get there. Okay, and that's this is all about. So recognition

41:29 recognition particle. So proteins that work the cytoplasmic membrane or work outside to

41:37 their recognized because the beginnings of their sequence have the signal sequences that are

41:46 by proteins that direct them to be outside. Okay. That's what you

41:53 here. Right. You see a recognition particle, Right? That's bringing

41:59 to the cell surface. Okay. then there's where translation is completed and

42:07 the protein will typically exit the cell be embedded in the membrane.

42:12 that's that's really all that refers to together and doing it through one of

42:20 signal sequences that signals it to be a protein. Hey, I'm working

42:27 here or in the membrane. This my signal to tell you to bring

42:31 there, so to speak. Um Okay. Any questions about

42:37 All right. So, I'm gonna this up again as we go into

42:42 . Okay, so again, now goes through. I remember that focus

42:49 the tractors and meeting the lagging Okay, Because I assume you all

42:54 that. All right. Um about to talk more generalities about certain things

43:01 to bacteria. Okay, so, cell division you're all familiar with

43:08 Right. So, visually end product mitosis and vision can appear to be

43:16 same. Okay, because we start the settle and we end with

43:22 Right, we end with uh daughter in our head. Right. And

43:29 what's happening in between is completely Okay, So when you carry which

43:34 have. And of course for both chromosome segregation and partition for preparing.

43:40 relatively simple process. Because we're just with one chromosome that that's copy you're

43:46 with two copies. That can be more complicated in eukaryotic cells. So

43:54 your P P matt. Right. 80 pro fes meta phase interface.

44:01 the old sister. Chroma tides and and chrome it did not have chroma

44:06 . Used to torture students with those and pull their hair out.

44:12 but you have to worry about that . That's why I went into study

44:16 here. I didn't want to mess it. All that stuff. So

44:21 anyway, my topic faces. So that's all about uh segregating the

44:26 . Um making sure that uh sets chromosomes go to the daughter cells,

44:32 ? Because you're dealing with linear chromosomes can be multiple. Right? We

44:37 course have 23 pairs. Right? I want to make it all work

44:43 . He goes through these different Okay. And then finally nuclear reform

44:49 then write to genetically identical cells. in precarious vision is not mitosis.

44:57 just is not. Okay. So equate the two things like that china

45:02 processes that way. Um It was . You do have obviously the carpet

45:08 the chromosome. Um And then there a bit of segregation here. If

45:15 will because the cell does have attachment here and here. Right. So

45:21 this is the glorious sequence. So we have actually hold on to

45:28 here. That's the story in the . Right? And when that chromosome

45:34 then of course you've replicated the ori in there. And that's what that

45:40 uses. So that when cell All right, that each half of

45:49 cell we'll have that cronyism. So, so again, it doesn't

45:57 a my tonic Sprinkle or anything like . It's kind of just the glory

46:01 . Conscious is attached to the inside the membrane and that's kind of how

46:05 and segregate them. Okay. Um course because there's not a lot of

46:12 know, phases and and all this of stuff going on. Right.

46:18 but this fishing can happen relatively Okay. Of course. The most

46:23 consuming part for you period in terms this process, the most time consuming

46:29 is going to be what? It's not this part. It's not actually

46:35 type of human in the cell But what what precedes it is the

46:41 time consuming part? Well, not growing we're not growing now. We're

46:48 ready to go through the phases. happens initially? Yeah, it's

46:56 right that space and you care about . So synthesis. So reputation of

47:00 the pros that takes of honest. ? When it gets into the and

47:06 the pro fes blah blah blah. actually goes to be quick. Okay

47:13 for pro Karyo it all goes rather because chromosome is small, copy drastically

47:20 . There's not a lot to do my kind of spindle that occurs in

47:24 phases. So copy copy DNA. of in the arteries and then boom

47:29 we go. Okay so um average 10 - 24 hours. Those cells

47:37 are faster growing. Of course things a fetus growing in the in the

47:44 womb. Those cells initially are going fast. So likely uh doubling times

47:51 maybe eight hours 6 to 8 That's fast for eukaryotic cell. But

47:55 carry outs of course can be as as 20 minutes. Maybe even less

47:59 that two hours apart. About the there somewhere longer than that. But

48:05 the point is they can replicate further . Um Okay so in terms of

48:14 , so your story is not unique bacteria cause we have multiple stories in

48:19 chromosomes. Um But it's where replica of new D. N.

48:25 Begins. Okay so um the story where the strands separated. Okay and

48:34 we see strand separation already occurring Okay and what happens is replication forks

48:42 mm hmm. So at those forks be ready to represent one representing each

48:49 and representatives a copy apparatus. Okay we have um DNA polymerase. Remember

49:00 memorizes. What does to copy census new DNA. And so each of

49:04 obs here is A. D. . A summarize P. O.

49:10 . For short. There's one there's here so each rebels home has two

49:17 these. Right? Because you're copying strengths. All right, D.

49:23 . A. Primaries. Right? you're coming there there there and there

49:30 you and these are going of course directions. Right? So new DNA

49:36 , you see there in red bi , right? They're going away from

49:41 other right in this direction. And they do that bubble um The uh

49:55 so when we look at this eventually to a sequence called terminator body where

49:59 complexes fall off. Right? But that point you've got to two fully

50:06 DNA molecules. Okay. So if look over here, this is where

50:11 gets a little interesting. Um So can see and I'll show you an

50:16 of this as well. So here have the chromosome at the top here

50:22 then the strands separate and as soon the stories are copied and they

50:30 And so here's one story. There's . Alright, so we've copied now

50:36 we begin to copy the D. . A. At the already started

50:40 soon as before he gets duplicated, it'll fix it will attach to the

50:48 of that cell membrane right there. two little green things are so you

50:52 see him attached here. Right. . Corey or kept. And that's

51:00 how it holds on. So as gets copied then the cell because the

51:04 is going to split in the right there. And so then it

51:09 that each each half of that will a copy of the chromosome and the

51:12 divides each each one has copy. , so um then you see F

51:20 sido scalable components aren't fully formed yet they do and they form in the

51:26 . Okay. And so here you the beginnings of the Ziering forming.

51:33 . And it will occupy the center that cell. But you notice that

51:39 is here are the the DNA is copied right here and here.

51:47 But before that's even finished Alright, started the next round here, shown

51:55 the two rectangles here and here you you've already started copying again.

52:02 so this that that cell will lead of course two cells each with a

52:10 of DNA. But before that even we're already on Or the soul becomes

52:16 becomes 4, right? And kind going through your head and it's like

52:20 like the the cell is seeing oh , okay, we're gonna see that

52:25 ? Make two cells are already finding before. Alright, exponential growth.

52:30 so you know like I said you the two copies being formed here but

52:35 not even done right because this is the terminate here. We've already started

52:40 the next round but we're still in set. Right? So it's like

52:46 one cell but I'm looking ahead to I'm for. Okay. And so

52:49 can imagine how exponentially that continues Right? So, so here you

52:56 the complete Ziering is formed and that's going to carry out the I dislocated

53:05 envelope material on both both halves of self. Okay. And uh and

53:11 you see that we have two copies then they were already on the way

53:15 making the the copies for the next . Okay, So, um so

53:21 real quick. You can see it . Okay, and again, these

53:28 available to you as well on the . And if you go to the

53:32 materials tab, it's in there. let's take a look. Um

53:44 I'm just gonna speed this up a bit. So there's our cell chromosome

53:51 our story Rebecca I'm sorry. So our do it this way.

53:58 Rory chromosome replication for forms is a to rebel zones. Right,

54:07 And there's the two forks. as soon as the already gets

54:13 So you see how it attaches to inside of the membrane. Yeah.

54:18 here come the repo zones. And we go. Okay. All

54:33 okay, come on. Kind of here. Okay, so here we

54:37 . So one helix to progeny Right. Okay. And the

54:48 is that terminator sequence that they're heading that bidirectional replication. Okay. And

54:55 you see that where this is not complete. So here's one copy.

55:02 the other copy. But then we've started on the next one. Right

55:06 when there will be four cells. so um there we go terminator sequence

55:17 the F T F T. Z rings. Now you see that

55:20 have two copies. But even those copies now are each being copied

55:26 Right. Here comes the septum and . Okay, so um this goes

55:36 to the concept I mentioned um you why? Way back when uh that

55:43 back a couple weeks ago um why can be so successful. Right,

55:49 adapt so quickly that we talked Um there are small size,

55:53 Small chromosome uh how having divided so write exponential growth. Um the then

56:05 the the public arrival zone formation. ? And there was lots of protein

56:10 quickly. But we're growing very Right? And lots of cells that

56:15 a tremendous amount of protein synthesis. new biomass. Right? So this

56:22 these are life forms that can do because there equipped to do it right

56:27 size more promises that quickly divide Lots of protein. Made anything control

56:37 might take an approach to turn on off as needed. And we haven't

56:42 really much about a little bit. in the next year we'll talk more

56:45 metabolism. Our diverse their metabolism is all of that right? Goes into

56:52 they can be so successful. And And then stuff we'll talk about

57:01 rotation reputation ratings ability to transfer DNA cells. So all that goes to

57:10 they can be very there. So been so successful. Any questions at

57:16 point? Okay. Um Alright. polar aging. Okay. So I

57:26 um they that the soul pulled will all the same. Okay, so

57:33 the solder the ends of the Okay. So but even supposed to

57:40 symmetrical, symmetrical selves, there is asymmetry to that. Okay. So

57:45 you look at the polar aging, ? So here's a cell,

57:52 That just came out of a prior division. Okay. And because they

58:00 process occurs at one end or the . Right? When that separation

58:05 you basically created a new poll, ? Because you just in that septum

58:11 process, you synthesize new material. of course there's gonna be a new

58:16 new end for, right? This end is just out here and it's

58:20 can say it's aged hasn't gotten any material, but it has on this

58:24 . Right. And that's really what crux of this is about,

58:28 So this is showing the old poles the red red color on one

58:35 The new polls with the blue. . So for each successive division,

58:41 you generate an old report. And so it turns out that um

58:50 this represents a kind of differences in . Okay. That they've seen that

58:57 proteins eventually don't work, right? they accumulate, they don't fold properly

59:05 they don't function properly. And they tend to accumulate. So these bad

59:09 can tend to aggregate. And they've that this happens at the old

59:15 that these proteins are kind of not alone anymore, deteriorating and you tend

59:21 collect at the old poles. Now, of course, can contribute

59:25 the light of the set. Um and so it can be so

59:31 population if it's on the older end the range, you don't have a

59:35 of these old pools, so to . Okay. And so the point

59:39 , well, what's the point of ? What's the significance of that?

59:43 , the significance in terms of the of that one. Another one is

59:47 terms we've seen that in terms of , that's antibiotics can have have varying

59:56 uh depending on the polar age population those were over polar ages tend to

60:03 more resistant. Maybe in some cases something about. Okay, and so

60:10 doesn't mean necessarily that it will be . Okay, we're talking about a

60:17 of the cell dividing and then just old poles in the population.

60:22 That that may not be a heritable that can test our existence, but

60:28 for that population that's in that body that time, of course can be

60:32 significant for that person. Mr that's what they're saying, that they're

60:41 they're the antibiotics don't work as well the older populations. Uh A more

60:49 to it. But it's not really that's a terrible trip. Okay.

60:54 something it's just a function of that and its own polls, so to

60:58 . That's what we're saying that. But they've seen things like just we

61:05 in the context of a cell Okay. Uh Not not in every

61:11 but in certain ones it's been This is certainly something that's still being

61:16 and figured out. But when you at uh quickly rod shaped cells um

61:24 do see phenomenon where things happen at end compared to the other. And

61:28 prime example that is in those four which we'll talk about later. But

61:35 the english sport can certainly form every end or the other. Okay.

61:41 The the there could be unequal So we saw last time that that

61:50 so while synthesis may may predominantly occurs just one poll versus the other.

61:55 what they need to consume weird growth features. Okay. Like what we

62:02 T um or fix. So branching . He's okay. Instead of a

62:10 bacterial type, there's one that's not . So you can look at a

62:14 every every rod, every cell is rocket. Okay. Mhm. You

62:19 . So mostly uniform in size and . Okay. A a staff to

62:25 . They're all circles right? Maybe groups, right. But the amorphous

62:31 is not uniform. It has this of weird branching forms and things like

62:35 . Because of the third division of cell wall synthesis, many occurring at

62:39 end of the cell versus the So just produced this kind of

62:44 Uh I'm going backward Has a stock one. Okay. Uh you can

62:52 lose that. And Formentera gentleman that you see some of these polar differences

62:58 these are typically species specific. And here shows uh kind of the

63:06 forms we call it. So they of have bent forms like this maybe

63:11 of swollen at one. And so the products of these kind of polar

63:18 in terms of growth. Okay. then you see collectively here all the

63:22 types variations in shape of bacterial types relates to, you know, poley

63:31 . How they divide kinds of division we've talked about. So uh the

63:38 differences that would provide really these Um Okay, so back to our

63:47 . Okay, so we've come full . So let's see how it comes

63:54 this time. Mm hmm mm Yeah. Yeah. Hey turn the

64:56 on. Mm hmm. 10 9 . Okay. Uh let's see definitely

65:32 from the first time. Alright, one of each replication for four

65:38 What? Oh um No. There dense tree. One of each

65:47 Alright, that's true. Um ftse expectation. Yes. I just said

65:55 . I said it about 10 times week. Polar aging relates to cell

66:01 split in half and we have one pole and one new poll. So

66:07 we need the inter application outpaces. runs ahead of its cell division

66:14 Yeah. Because we had it made hadn't quite completed making two copies and

66:19 it's already on the way to making next two copies. Right? So

66:24 . Okay. Mhm. So material and transcription. Vice versa,

66:30 The nuclear Lloyd translation outside the Yeah, that's false. Okay so

66:39 it's all together. It's a party zone. Okay. Um Any

66:47 Yes. Mhm. Yes. It's . D. N. A.

66:59 complex. Or reptile zone is a of two D. N.

67:04 Polymerase molecules and some other things that bring about DNA synthesis. But then

67:10 , you're right. That's what it . And each representing has to DNA

67:14 is and each one of each Okay. There's one rep Liz um

67:24 each for each rep is um contains to DNA polymerase is one sits down

67:30 each fork. Just got it. . Um. Alright let's look at

67:41 structures a little bit. Right? when we look at these, these

67:49 good of structures. Some relate to specific effects things somehow like food

68:03 Some are like involved in motility. so the variety. Okay. Uh

68:11 no one bacterium has all of these . Okay, but they can have

68:15 of these. Um if we look the first of these relates to

68:22 remember the auto trophy head or a that we talked about? Okay,

68:27 that oughta trophy carbon. Right. 100 trophy autotrophs is What's the

68:33 Alright, let's go to our Is it not So to something more

68:40 ? Glucose fats. What happened? , so on the trophy is in

68:45 realm of these types. Right. trophy and little tropes. Okay.

68:50 so they fixed the 02 and their structures that occur as a result.

68:57 , so Dylan Coy's so photosynthetic bacteria don't have do not have core

69:06 Okay, Okay. Okay. But McCoys are just membrane folding wings that

69:15 stuffed with the first synthetic pigments and . Okay, so it's not an

69:21 l just membrane folds containing photosynthetic Okay, so, certainly foot approach

69:27 have to have We'll see that other . We have some variations of

69:32 But again, bottom line is we're talking that they have chloroplasts.

69:38 but they can have dial accords. can also have car boxy zones.

69:43 , so car boxy zones are involved cinema to fixation. Okay, so

69:49 are kind of protein covered structures full this enzyme. Okay. Disco For

70:00 . The longer name is over You see the long name down

70:03 Okay. Uh No you don't. called ruby low's by phosphate car box

70:08 lace. Okay. But it's essentially enzyme that takes the C. 02

70:16 hooks it onto another molecule. And the Calvin cycle starts that way.

70:23 and other crops that are very vigorously . So too can have these structures

70:30 moxie zones. Okay, so what's article? Well then Karbacher zones can

70:37 found in either the boutros for Okay. Um again, the metabolic

70:47 structure. Okay. Not not an L but because it's not bound with

70:52 membrane, it's bound with proteins in case. Okay, gas vacuums can

70:57 present. Okay. He's not uncommon certain aquatic aquatic bacteria have these particularly

71:07 that the other problem is fully Get them to the proper depth for

71:18 absorption. Right? Because the water coming to light coming through the

71:21 it's gonna refract and you're gonna have get to a level that's optimal for

71:26 the right energy absorption. So aghast can help with that. Okay,

71:32 up or down. Okay. Um everything on this slide you'll see is

71:38 about food storage energy storage. so your meta chromatic Granules um these

71:48 miscue phosphate stores. Okay. Corrina . You see they're staying purple with

71:54 blue with staining the the meta chromatic of phosphate columnar storage. Right?

72:02 how it works is it's a quick of energy by just simply phosphors letting

72:06 to make a teepee and boom, you go. Okay so again,

72:11 energy store for these types. Uh you're familiar with um starch in

72:18 Plants sell starch and uh envelope envelope I guess is the other one

72:25 Our own cells have glycogen as an storage muscle cells. And so it's

72:31 glucose polymers and bacteria have both types . Starch etcetera. Okay. Um

72:39 this is a metabolic byproducts of sulfur . The yellow yellow blobs in the

72:46 and the filament to cells are sulfur , elemental salt shows up as the

72:56 . Uh my part of sulfur metabolism sulfur. Remember little troughs,

73:02 Can use H. Two S. an energy source. And the end

73:07 is okay and it accumulates in the that way and this species at

73:13 Okay, lipid storage, Right? lip poly hydroxy reiterates. Okay.

73:20 this is the building block right? make the polymer. Okay, it's

73:26 type of fat. It's a lipid that you see in bacillus. The

73:30 blobs are ph b Okay, so can clip these things off, take

73:39 polymer. Make monitors and metabolize the for energy check. Um So certainly

73:49 the monochromatic Granules police sacha ride These are all ways to get

73:57 The sulfur Granules is kind of just byproduct, right? That's a byproduct

74:01 metabolism. Okay, the end product of accumulates in the cell.

74:07 Um So mechanisms. Okay, so zones are used for orientation. Think

74:19 of magnetism is the compass. It's a compass for the set that

74:24 it's not not an energy source. not a food source. Okay.

74:30 a way to orient itself in its . Okay. And so it's made

74:35 magnetite. Right? So it's oriented in terms of magnetic north or south

74:42 on what hemisphere it's in. It's the northern hemisphere North pole. So

74:46 hemisphere or us towards south pole. . And there are species that live

74:51 both hemispheres. Okay. And these aquatic bacteria that use. Okay.

74:58 so the reason it's thought has to with the fact of what we call

75:05 behavior in the presence of oxygen. ? We'll learn that bacteria have different

75:14 they behave in the presence of Okay? Some loving some are killed

75:19 it. Some makes no difference to to run the whole spectrum. Okay

75:25 two types we call Microtel relic. the other type is called anaerobic.

75:31 ? So anaerobic means without michael it you gotta have it But must be

75:37 less than atmospheric concentrations of atmospheric concentration 2021%. Right? Gotta be much

75:44 than it's too toxic for it. so their species can run both ways

75:49 this group from anaerobic. Some are . The point is if you're an

75:55 bacteria oxygen levels will vary what Okay auction levels go down as you

76:06 deeper. Okay. Higher auction at top which makes sense. Right.

76:11 air links is with the water at top. Right? So you think

76:15 more hold two of the higher levels break lower. Okay. So for

76:19 bacteria and then it uses its make zones to orient in terms of north

76:27 , but it's also downward. Orients northward and bound or in the southern

76:34 southward and down. Okay. And level of which should stops,

76:42 is presumably where the optimal level of . Right? So let's option at

76:47 bottom more of the tops of the . Use that magneto zone to kind

76:51 guide it downward, you know, depth wise and toward north or

76:57 depending on what happens all because of need for oxygen levels of sort of

77:04 certain type. Ok. Or lack it. Okay. And so that's

77:08 of what drives this? Okay, it's all about to think of it

77:11 the defensively Not only doctors are going be late to motility to movement.

77:18 right. And this is one you argue oriented related to luke orientation and

77:24 . So to a gas vacuum All right. Uh Of course it's

77:29 obvious you think of certain, but other variations. There's other movements that

77:35 require. Ok, so keep Okay. Okay um you guys are

77:41 laugh. You're gonna laugh. So let you I'll let you out of

77:44 . Thanks folks. Yeah. Yeah can make um it can't the more

78:05 more members of the population older poles Oh yes it's not in terms of

78:36 it's gonna be mostly for those that what you're gonna get that balance.

78:45 in certain species apartments they've seen this the way. Absolutely. I've never

79:24 recorded lectures in 17 years way because the magnetite will oriented towards magnetic north

79:39 south but it does so downward So this is north, it's not

79:44 going this way, so it's going be typically not always consistent but auction

79:55 will vary in terms of depth, higher at the top floor at the

79:59 . So it'll the magnetite will kind orient them downward to get to their

80:03 level of what they need. So an arab you want to get away

80:07 it, you don't want to get away from them. And so if

80:09 a micro profile, something will blow top and all the way at the

80:14 and so that kind of helps them that. Yeah. Thank you.

80:17 . Yes, I was wondering if could explain kind of a little bit

80:22 history was kind of confused on basically part. Like I understand that microbes

80:29 part of like the plants and animals then they divided into their own kingdom

80:34 confusion to

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